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Introduction Mycotoxins are a chemically broad group of compounds characterized by low molecular weight. They are usually produced by moulds, especially species Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria and Fusarium. Generally, there are many species, although only a few are monitored [1]. These species pose a health risk to both humans and livestock, and their occurrence causes considerable economic damage every year. The most involved are aflatoxins (AFB1), fumonisins, ochratoxins,...
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1. Introduction Fusarium head blight (FHB) of small grain cereals and Fusarium Ear Rot (FER) of maize remain among the most important diseases affecting cereals worldwide. Among the predominating fungi causing both diseases are Fusarium graminearum sensu stricto (s.s.) and F. culmorum [1,2]. Besides yield losses, they also cause quality decline by contamination of the grain with type B trichothecenes. This group of mycotoxins includes deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV),...
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1. Introduction Maize or corn (Zea mays L.) is a cereal of extreme importance in the diets of many populations, contributing especially as a source of energy because of its high content of starches (up to 73% of kernel weight), proteins (8–13.7%), fatty acids (4–5.4%), as well as vitamins and minerals [1,2]. Corn grits are produced by removing the outer bran, the germ, and the tip cap of the grains, followed by grinding into smaller coarse bits. A wide variety of...
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1. Introduction Aflatoxins are highly toxic and carcinogenic compounds produced by Aspergillus flavus and closely related fungi in several crops [1]. Maize (Zea mays L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) are amongst the most susceptible crops. Crop contamination with these potent compounds negatively affects both human and animal health, the income of farmers, and trade opportunities [2–4]. In the case of animals, when feeds are prepared with aflatoxin-contaminated crops,...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi. These compounds represent a threat to food security as they recurrently contaminate human food and animal feed, especially when those products have been produced from fungal-infected agricultural commodities, such as fruits, grains and vegetables [1]. The main foodborne mycotoxins of public health concern are aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochrartoxins, zearalenone, tricothecenes, deoxynivalenol and patulin...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are toxic chemically diverse secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. Their structural diversity can give rise to several adverse effects in humans and animals, such as carcinogenicity, immunosuppression, teratogenicity, nephrotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity [1]. The contamination of food and feed supply with low levels of mycotoxins is widespread, and includes commodities such as wine, apple juice, cereals, milk, coffee beans, maize, nuts,...
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Multi-mycotoxins contamination exposes ruminant livestock to health and performance issue
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1. Introduction The basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors are highly conserved in eukaryotes, and play critical roles in stress response pathways. These proteins are able to form homodimers or heterodimers, and bind specific DNA sequences to regulate the expression of genes involved in cellular responses to oxidative stress. For example, the evolutionarily conserved bZIP protein, Nrf2, is known to form heterodimers with ATF4 or MAF, and bind to antioxidant response...
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1. Introduction Many species of filamentous fungi have the ability to produce toxic secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins. The term mycotoxin is used only for toxic substances produced by fungi related to food products and animal feed; it does not include toxins produced by mushrooms [1]. Today, about 400 structurally different mycotoxins have been discovered and divided into the following main groups: (i) aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus species and ochratoxins produced...
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1. Introduction Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)—one of the most commercially significant cereals worldwide—is grown in certain regions of Africa and in the highlands of Asia and Latin America, where the grain is usually consumed for human nutrition. In Europe, barley is used for animal feed and in the preparation of alcoholic beverages such as beer and whisky. In Argentina, the grain’s main destination is likewise the brewing industry, although the use of barley...
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1. Introduction The economic losses caused by mycotoxins are mostly related to the extra costs employed to reduce or eliminate mycotoxin contamination in the diet, and the financial losses due to suboptimal animal production (Magnoli et al., 2019). Among the mycotoxins affecting livestock production, the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) appears as one of the most important ones. The knowledge regarding the effects of DON on broilers is mostly based on studies using...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites that are harmful to animals and humans [1]. Monogastric animals are considered to be more susceptible to the toxic effects of mycotoxins than ruminants as the rumen microbiota are capable to degrade some of those toxic molecules to less toxic metabolites [2–4]. In addition, intrinsic rumen fluid factors, such as bacterial and yeast cell walls and feed particles, can deactivate mycotoxins (e.g., aflatoxins and...
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Introduction Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of low molecular weights produced by certain strains of filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus, Fusarium and Penicillium, which invade crops in the field and may grow on foods during storage under favaourable conditions of temperature and humidity. The most common mycotoxins are aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes, zearalenone, and out of which aflatoxins (AF) commonly contaminate a wide variety of tropical and...
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Multi-mycotoxins contamination exposes ruminant livestock to health and performance issue
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1. Introduction The warm and humid climate conditions of sub-Saharan Africa promote the growth of fungi and associated production of mycotoxins. Approximately 25% of grains harvested annually worldwide contain mycotoxins. Ingestion of these contaminated foods can lead to disease and death [1]. Aflatoxin is the most prevalent and harmful human mycotoxin reported to date [2]. Aflatoxins are common food contaminants produced as secondary metabolites of fungi belonging to...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are produced by molds under specific conditions, such as high humidity, poor agricultural practices, or damaged and contaminated crops. Although the presence of molds on grains does not necessarily mean there are mycotoxins present, the potential for mycotoxin production does exist. Further, the long-term absence of molds on stored food and feed does not guarantee that the grain is free of mycotoxins [1,2]. The issue of mycotoxin risk is therefore...
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INTRODUCTION Poultry farming has metamorphosed into an organized industry in recent past and registered a rapid growth over last three decades in India. Many problems are continuously challenging against successful poultry farming operations and the common one is threat of mycotoxicosis in poultry. Aflatoxins (AF) have been demonstrated to be carcinogenic, mutagenic, teratogenic and toxic. Surveillance of AFB 1 content of poultry feedstuffs in U.P., India by Johri et...
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INTRODUCTION Aflatoxin is the common name for a group of chemically related compounds (Moss, 1996) produced by certain strains of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus in the feedstuffs as poisonous secondary metabolites. Aflatoxins are stable once formed in grain and are not degraded during normal milling and storage process (Brown, 1996) and have been demonstrated to be carcinogenic, mutagenic and teratogenic (Cole and Cox, 1981). It impairs humoral and cellular immune...
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Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a mycotoxin produced mainly by Aspergillus ochraceus and Penicillium verrucosum. The family of ochratoxins consists of 3 members, viz. ochratoxin A, B and C but ochratoxin A is the most toxic one (Chang et al. 1979). They are the second major group of mycotoxins characterized after the discovery of aflatoxins. OTA is an isocumarin derivative linked through the carboxy group to a L-β-phenylalanine (Engelhardt et al. 1999). Ochratoxin A is a natural contaminant of...
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The presence of ochratoxin A in poultry feed causes significantly to health disorders and decreases production. In a survey conducted to investigate global occurrence of mycotoxins, the incidence of OTA in South Asia was found to be 55% on analyzing the feed samples (Nahrer and Kovalsky 2014). Ochratoxin A causes significant losses and reduction in the profitability of poultry industry due to its effects on performance and health (Agawane and Lonkar 2004). It causes a reduction in productive...
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Multi-mycotoxins contamination exposes ruminant livestock to health and performance issue
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1. Introduction Maize (Zea mays L.) is a monoecious plant of the Poaceae family, and it is cultivated worldwide. Two phases can be distinguished during its growth—vegetative and reproductive. The vegetative phase begins with the growth of the plant and culminates with the appearance of the male flower. The reproductive phase begins with the emergence of the female flower, and the physiological maturity of the cob takes place in this stage [1]. Maize is one of the most...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are among the microbial toxins of most concern to public health, and they represent a barrier to a wider international trade of agri-food products and an important obstacle in the face of the harmonization of regulatory standards globally, as was discussed earlier [1]. They are produced by various mould species as low-molecular-weight non-immunogenic secondary metabolites whose occurrence has been reported in virtually all foods and feeds...
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