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1. Introduction Up to 80% of food items of plant origin worldwide are estimated to be contaminated with mycotoxins, toxic secondary metabolites of fungi, at levels above the limit of detection (LOD) [1]. Mycotoxins threaten the health and productivity of humans and domesticated animals through dietary exposure at both acute and sub-acute contamination levels in the diet [2,3]. Many countries regulate the levels of mycotoxins allowed in imported goods, and mycotoxins are becoming...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites that represent a serious threat to the health of both animals and humans [1]. Food and feed contamination by mycotoxins poses major concerns for public health and welfare as dietary exposure may cause disorders, dysfunctions, and alterations of physiological states in both humans and animals [2]. Ripening staple crops are all exposed to phyllosphere fungi, some of which are able to infect the crops resulting in...
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1. Introduction The gut is constantly exposed to potentially harmful contaminants from food or feed, such as mycotoxins [1]. Aflatoxin B1 is a mycotoxin produced by different species of fungi, especially Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus [2]. AFB1 is a potent carcinogen in humans and animals [3] and, for this reason, was classified in Group 1 of human carcinogens on the basis of toxicological data. Aflatoxins can contaminate different commodities such as cereals, nuts, dried...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are fungal secondary metabolites with adverse effects on human and animal health. To date, more than 400 different molecules, produced by several types of fungi, have been characterized [1]. Because of their high toxicity, aflatoxins B 1 , B 2 , G 1 , and G 2 (AFB 1 , AFB 2 , AFG 1 , and AFG 2 ) are the most important, and are produced by the species of Aspergillus section...
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1. Introduction Endophytes are a particularly interesting group of microorganisms that can be isolated from asymptomatic plant tissue. Among fungal endophytes, most species belong to the ascomycota and deuteromycota phyla and might be the producers of several groups of new, unique secondary metabolites [1]. The specific relationship between the host plant and its endophytes includes complex biochemical interactions [2,3]. Endophytes have adapted themselves to their special...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are natural contaminants commonly found in plant-derived foodstuffs, mainly cereals and their by-products. Since these raw materials are added as ingredients in feed formulation for different animal species, including cultivated fish, the risk of mycotoxin contamination in feed for aquaculture has increased, thus introducing contaminants (i.e., mycotoxins), which were not previously identified in fish tissues [1]. Diverse studies reported mycotoxin...
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1. Introduction Aflatoxins (AFs) are secondary metabolites of the Aspergillus species of fungi, which are generally contaminate tropical and subtropical food and feedstuffs [1]. However, due to climate change, their occurrence in temperate climates should be taken into account not only during storage but also on the field [2,3]. Climate change usually causes drought stress in fungi, and stress-responding pathways can stimulate the AF production of Aspergillus flavus...
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The so called Mycotoxins are not a new subject to Indian poultry industry. Perhaps, it is not an overstatement to say that Indian poultry feed millers, integrators and farmers understand mycotoxin challenges much better than their counterparts from the other countries. This is due to the extensive applied research carried on mycotoxins in poultry as well as high occurrence of aflatoxicosis in the field. Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of molds and their presence in the raw...
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Introduction Mycotoxins are a chemically broad group of compounds characterized by low molecular weight. They are usually produced by moulds, especially species Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria and Fusarium. Generally, there are many species, although only a few are monitored [1]. These species pose a health risk to both humans and livestock, and their occurrence causes considerable economic damage every year. The most involved are aflatoxins (AFB1), fumonisins, ochratoxins,...
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1. Introduction Fusarium head blight (FHB) of small grain cereals and Fusarium Ear Rot (FER) of maize remain among the most important diseases affecting cereals worldwide. Among the predominating fungi causing both diseases are Fusarium graminearum sensu stricto (s.s.) and F. culmorum [1,2]. Besides yield losses, they also cause quality decline by contamination of the grain with type B trichothecenes. This group of mycotoxins includes deoxynivalenol (DON) and nivalenol (NIV),...
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1. Introduction Maize or corn (Zea mays L.) is a cereal of extreme importance in the diets of many populations, contributing especially as a source of energy because of its high content of starches (up to 73% of kernel weight), proteins (8–13.7%), fatty acids (4–5.4%), as well as vitamins and minerals [1,2]. Corn grits are produced by removing the outer bran, the germ, and the tip cap of the grains, followed by grinding into smaller coarse bits. A wide variety of...
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1. Introduction Aflatoxins are highly toxic and carcinogenic compounds produced by Aspergillus flavus and closely related fungi in several crops [1]. Maize (Zea mays L.) and groundnut (Arachis hypogea L.) are amongst the most susceptible crops. Crop contamination with these potent compounds negatively affects both human and animal health, the income of farmers, and trade opportunities [2–4]. In the case of animals, when feeds are prepared with aflatoxin-contaminated crops,...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi. These compounds represent a threat to food security as they recurrently contaminate human food and animal feed, especially when those products have been produced from fungal-infected agricultural commodities, such as fruits, grains and vegetables [1]. The main foodborne mycotoxins of public health concern are aflatoxins, fumonisins, ochrartoxins, zearalenone, tricothecenes, deoxynivalenol and patulin...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are toxic chemically diverse secondary metabolites produced by filamentous fungi. Their structural diversity can give rise to several adverse effects in humans and animals, such as carcinogenicity, immunosuppression, teratogenicity, nephrotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity [1]. The contamination of food and feed supply with low levels of mycotoxins is widespread, and includes commodities such as wine, apple juice, cereals, milk, coffee beans, maize, nuts,...
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1. Introduction The basic leucine zipper (bZIP) transcription factors are highly conserved in eukaryotes, and play critical roles in stress response pathways. These proteins are able to form homodimers or heterodimers, and bind specific DNA sequences to regulate the expression of genes involved in cellular responses to oxidative stress. For example, the evolutionarily conserved bZIP protein, Nrf2, is known to form heterodimers with ATF4 or MAF, and bind to antioxidant response...
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1. Introduction Many species of filamentous fungi have the ability to produce toxic secondary metabolites known as mycotoxins. The term mycotoxin is used only for toxic substances produced by fungi related to food products and animal feed; it does not include toxins produced by mushrooms [1]. Today, about 400 structurally different mycotoxins have been discovered and divided into the following main groups: (i) aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus species and ochratoxins produced...
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1. Introduction Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)—one of the most commercially significant cereals worldwide—is grown in certain regions of Africa and in the highlands of Asia and Latin America, where the grain is usually consumed for human nutrition. In Europe, barley is used for animal feed and in the preparation of alcoholic beverages such as beer and whisky. In Argentina, the grain’s main destination is likewise the brewing industry, although the use of barley...
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1. Introduction The economic losses caused by mycotoxins are mostly related to the extra costs employed to reduce or eliminate mycotoxin contamination in the diet, and the financial losses due to suboptimal animal production (Magnoli et al., 2019). Among the mycotoxins affecting livestock production, the Fusarium mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) appears as one of the most important ones. The knowledge regarding the effects of DON on broilers is mostly based on studies using...
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