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1. Introduction Breeding for Fusarium head blight (FHB) resistance is the most effective means of providing useful protection of wheat [1,2]. It is well known that resistance to Fusarium graminearum and Fusarium culmorum is not race-specific [3–7]. Research has shown that in wheat, the resistance to different Fusaria is also species-non-specific, e.g., the genotypes, being resistant to F. graminearum, will also show resistance to other Fusarium spp. tested [8,9]. As...
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1. Introduction Mixing of isolates is a general methodical procedure used to produce inoculum for artificial inoculation. In most cases, no reason is given as to why it is used. It is known that the isolates of the Fusarium spp. have a strong variability in aggressiveness [1–3]. As mixing in seedling tests strongly influences aggressiveness [1], it is important to know what the influence of mixing on the disease-causing capacity is. It is clear now that Fusarium...
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by some filamentous fungi and whose presence has been detected mainly in agricultural products and processed food [1,2]. A recent review published by Eskola et al. [3] estimated that more than 60% of all crops around the world contain mycotoxins, and several classes can simultaneously be found in food. Contamination can happen at any stage of cultivation, harvesting, processing, or storage, when environmental...
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1. Introduction Creatinine (2-amino-1-methyl-2-imidazoline-4-one) is the final metabolism product of creatine in mammals [1], which is excreted exclusively by the kidneys via glomerular filtration and, to a lesser extent, by tubular secretion [2]. Under physiological conditions, its excretion throughout the day is relatively constant, the amount of creatinine produced is proportional to the muscle mass of the individuals [3]. In contrast, urine production depends on the...
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Introduction Mycotoxins are a large group of toxins produced by moulds and they can be very toxic for animals, plants and humans. Mycotoxins occur particularly in regions or countries with climates of high temperature and humidity or where there are poor crop harvesting and storage conditions, which encourage mould growth and mycotoxin development (25). The toxic effects of mycotoxins are mainly on liver and they cause teratogenic, mutagenic,...
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1. Introduction Traditional Camellia sinensis (C. sinensis) black and green teas, and teas made from medicinal herbs such as peppermint, chamomile, and dog-rose, are consumed daily as the most favoured beverages in Europe and other countries [1,2]. Caffeine-rich teas are commonly imported from the tea-growing regions in China, Japan, Sri Lanka, India, and Kenya, repacked and blended with natural or artificial flavours, dried fruits, and spices, and sold in supermarkets or...
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Mycotoxins represent a risk to the feed supply chain with an impact on animal health, feed industry, economy, and international trade. A high percentage of feed samples have been reported to be contaminated with more than one mycotoxin. Multi-mycotoxin contamination is a topic of great concern, as co-contaminated samples might still exert adverse effects on animals due to additive/synergistic interactions of the mycotoxins. Since mycotoxin contamination cannot be completely prevented pre-or...
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1. Introduction Fusarium head blight (FHB) is a devastating fungal disease that affects wheat and other small-grain cereals worldwide, caused by several species belonging to the genus Fusarium. Besides causing significant yield losses and reducing grain quality [1], these species are also able to biosynthesize mycotoxins harmful to both humans and animals [2,3]. F. culmorum (W. G. Smith) Sacc. and F. graminearum Schwabe are generally considered the two most important FHB causal...
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1. Introduction Grain production is the basis of global food security and is indispensable for feeding the world. In 1798, Malthus argued that the global population increases more rapidly than global food supply until war, disease, or famine reduces the number of people [1]. The failure thus far of Malthus’s prediction has not prevented others from promoting similar scenarios in more recent decades. For example, Paddock [2] forecasted a worldwide famine by 1975 and stated...
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Mycotoxins in animal nutrition Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites, produced naturally in various Genera of Fungi. The most significant in animal production are produced by molds of the Genera Aspergillus , Fusarium and Penicillium ....
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1. Introduction Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites of fungi and are frequently found in a variety of agricultural crops such as cereals, fruits, and nuts. Mycotoxin contamination of crops and their carry over into the human food chain are of great concern as they are potent toxins and their toxicities may contribute to adverse health effects in humans [1]. In response to fungal infection and mycotoxin production, several cereal plants have been found to transform...
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1. Introduction Wheat is susceptible to Fusarium head blight (FHB) world-wide which causes both yield and quality losses, in addition to contamination of harvested grain with mycotoxins, particularly zearalenone (ZEN) and type B trichothecenes such as deoxynivalenol (DON). There are strict regulations in place for maximum contamination levels of these two toxins to reduce accumulation in the human and animal food chains. Both mycotoxins can be produced pre- and post-harvest....
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1. Introduction Fungal diseases are one of the main causes of large economic losses and deterioration in the quality and nutrient composition of fruits during the postharvest stage. They contribute significantly to the reduction of the shelf life of products during storage, contaminate fruits with mycotoxins, and reduce their market value. In the fresh production supply chain, such drawbacks have traditionally been overcome through the use of synthetic chemicals. However, due to...
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1. Introduction Pathogenic microorganisms present in the environment are a menace for crops. At a worldwide level, diseases caused by plant pathogenic fungi significantly contribute to overall losses in terms of crop yield. To face this challenge, the use of traditional pesticides entails disadvantages related to handling hazards, cost, residues, and threats to human health and the environment. Consequently, European Directive 2009/128/EC established a framework to achieve their...
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1. Introduction Rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) is one of the most important species among protein-oil crops grown in regions of moderate climates. The development of improved rapeseed varieties, i.e., free from harmful erucic acid and with a reduced glucosinolate content (the so-called double zero varieties “00”), has increased interest in this crop over the past decades. As a result, a significant increment in rapeseed cultivation has been observed and consequently,...
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Mycotoxin contamination is one of the serious threats to animal feed and human food manufacturing. Mold infection may occur at all stages from field crop planting to post-harvest storage and transportation. Even under good management, mycotoxin contamination caused by mold infection is considered an inevitable problem. In addition, many mycotoxins are not easily removed through processing, they are stable to heat, physical and chemical treatments. More than 500 types of mycotoxin have...
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1. Introduction Egypt started sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.) cultivation in 1848 when the first variety of the crop was imported from Jamaica. Since that time, sugarcane is cultivated for three main purposes: human consumption (chewing), sugarcane honey manufacturing in villages for local use, and sugar production. In the years 1922-23, the production of sugar severely dropped due to an extreme attack of the grey sugarcane mealybug Pseudococcus sacchari Ckll. Two main...
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1. Introduction Soybean (Glycine max L.) is an economically valuable crop due to its high protein and oil content and wide variety of uses in food, agricultural pharmaceutical and industrial applications [1]. The United States produces 32.5% of the world’s soybeans (120 million tons/year valued at $31.2 billion), making it the second most valuable US crop [2]. In the southern US, high temperatures and dry conditions, along with poor management, can lead to...
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1. Introduction Toxigenic fungi and mycotoxin occurrence varies between crops, as fungal species and strains differ in their ability to infect a particular plant host. Crop varieties also show different levels of susceptibility or resistance to toxigenic fungal infection. In addition, the same plant host can be attacked by different toxigenic fungi resulting in multi-mycotoxin contamination. Additionally, interacting climate-related abiotic conditions, especially water...
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Introduction The toxigenic fungi cause heavy losses in the in the yield, but the toxic poisoning of the grain is economically far more important. They provide food safety risk in human food supply and the same is true also for the animal husbandry. The amount of the global grain mass contaminated by mycotoxins is estimated to about 210 million t. A significant part of the storage loss, estimated about 420 million t is due to storage fungi [1]. As many toxigenic species occur,...
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