broiler production in South Africa
Poultry Nutrition in South Africa
Published: January 17, 2011
By: Brett Roosendaal (Rainbow Farms Pty Ltd)
Introduction
South African broiler production systems vary from rudimentary subsistence farming to simplistic open house systems to highly technologically advanced integrated businesses that are world competitive. The primary genetic stock is Cobb 500 and Ross 308, however, Arbor Acres, Hubbard and Hybro are also present. In South Africa, poultry meat consumption is predominantly chicken with a fractional consumption of turkey meat which is imported. A large proportion of broilers are raised above 1500 meters above sea level and therefore ascites in winter months is a concern and needs to be managed accordingly.
Poultry Consumption
The poultry industry in terms of meat and eggs dominates the agricultural sector in South Africa and is the main supplier of animal protein to the population. The producer level turnover is R 30 billion which translates into R 47 billion at retail level and accounts for 24% of all agricultural production and 48% of all animal products in South Africa during 2009. Poultry meat accounts for R 23.1 billion, eggs R 6.9 billion and the chick industry R 3.6 billion. Poultry has shown an upward trend in consumption over the past 6 years. The per capita consumption of poultry meat was 31.83 kg per annum in comparison with beef at 15.77 kg, pork at 4.17 kg and mutton and goat consumption combined at 3.21 kg in 2009. Egg consumption was 8.6 kg (130 eggs) per capita per annum in 2009. The poultry industry provides 63.6% of animal protein consumed in South Africa.
The rise in poultry meat consumption results from the broiler industy's response to the demands of consumers and food service operators for value-added, branded and convenience products as well as the commoditised volume products. When South Africa is compared to Brazil or the United States on a per capita consumption basis, there is still an opportunity for tremendous growth in the demand for poultry products.
South African broiler production systems vary from rudimentary subsistence farming to simplistic open house systems to highly technologically advanced integrated businesses that are world competitive. The primary genetic stock is Cobb 500 and Ross 308, however, Arbor Acres, Hubbard and Hybro are also present. In South Africa, poultry meat consumption is predominantly chicken with a fractional consumption of turkey meat which is imported. A large proportion of broilers are raised above 1500 meters above sea level and therefore ascites in winter months is a concern and needs to be managed accordingly.
Poultry Consumption
The poultry industry in terms of meat and eggs dominates the agricultural sector in South Africa and is the main supplier of animal protein to the population. The producer level turnover is R 30 billion which translates into R 47 billion at retail level and accounts for 24% of all agricultural production and 48% of all animal products in South Africa during 2009. Poultry meat accounts for R 23.1 billion, eggs R 6.9 billion and the chick industry R 3.6 billion. Poultry has shown an upward trend in consumption over the past 6 years. The per capita consumption of poultry meat was 31.83 kg per annum in comparison with beef at 15.77 kg, pork at 4.17 kg and mutton and goat consumption combined at 3.21 kg in 2009. Egg consumption was 8.6 kg (130 eggs) per capita per annum in 2009. The poultry industry provides 63.6% of animal protein consumed in South Africa.
The rise in poultry meat consumption results from the broiler industy's response to the demands of consumers and food service operators for value-added, branded and convenience products as well as the commoditised volume products. When South Africa is compared to Brazil or the United States on a per capita consumption basis, there is still an opportunity for tremendous growth in the demand for poultry products.
Producers
The broiler industry is dominated by what is referred to as the big 5 which make up around 90% of broiler meat produced. The two largest producers slaughter close to 4 million broilers per week each. The major companies are integrated, however, not in the true sense of the word due to companies having excess capacity of day-old chicks and feed milling which are sold to smaller competitors in order to contribute to overhead recovery. The major producers own their own farms, however, contract broiler production is on the increase with major producers focusing on the front-end of the value chain.
Imports
Poultry imports increased by 4.4% to 231,303 tons in 2009, of which 89% was poultry meat. The origin of imports into South Africa are mainly from Brazil which accounted for 71.8% followed by Argentina at 13.6% and then Canada 5.1%, Australia 4.1%, USA 2.7% and other countries making up the remainder.
Cost of Production
Feed costs have always been a significant portion of poultry production and after the dramatic increases in 2008 in the main raw materials, maize and soya oilcake, prices have declined but not to the same levels experienced prior to 2008. The poultry industry's current profit margins continue to be under pressure due to high feed costs, over-supply through both significant additional local production and higher imports and the impact of the recession on consumer demand.
Feed volume is 4 million tons per annum for the poultry industry with the main feed ingredients being maize (59.3%), soya oilcake (16%), sunflower oilcake (5.6%) and wheaten bran (6.3%). The major raw materials are all sourced locally; however, the majority of soya oilcake is imported from Argentina. Maize and soya oilcake makeup approximately 80% of the cost of broiler feeds. The purchase of these major ingredients is through exchanges and is therefore subject to supply and demand fluctuations in the world market. Due to soya oilcake being imported, freight and exchange rates also need to be managed. Sophisticated financial instruments have become the order of the day with the necessary expertise and due diligence required. Wheat is not available for feed manufacture unless it has been downgraded for human consumption and supply is therefore erratic. Fish meal, full fat soya, prime gluten and canola oilcake are available at competitive prices from time to time and are used as alternatives to soya oilcake. The major integrators use their own poultry by-products from processing either as a combination meal or as feather meal, carcass meal and poultry oil.
Most South African integrators measure profit as return per square meter of broiler house per year. Due to this, stocking densities tend to be high with yields per square meter exceeding 35 kg/m2. As a consequence, cycle length impacts profitability and turn-around time becomes critical. One strategy used to deal with this is to change the litter every cycle and have a complete clean-out per crop. Wood shavings, wheat straw and sunflower hulls are used as litter material.
Broiler Market
The market size for broilers ranges from 1.65 to 1.85 kilograms dependant on the products to be manufactured. The quick service restaurant business is increasing with a smaller live weight sought after with uniform portion sizes. Retail and wholesale of individually quick frozen (IQF) portions is where the bulk of the market lies. South Africans prefer dark meat (drums, thighs and wings) as opposed to breast meat which often sells at a premium to breast meat. Live bird sales are on the decline, as are whole processed birds.
Feed Evaluation Systems
Knowledge of the nutritional value of feedstuffs and the nutrient requirements of poultry is crucial for the nutritionist composing the feed. The most important tools here are an extensive, sound feedstuff list and sound nutrient requirements. The majority of nutritionists in South Africa have technical agreements with international partners predominantly of European origin. Over and above this, nutritional research is conducted by individual companies as well as by local Universities.
Energy
A distinction in energy systems is made between adult poultry (breeders and layers) and broilers. In the past, most companies conducted cockerel digestibility studies on raw materials and corrected for nitrogen and intake, the well known Apparent Metabolisable Energy system. Using these AMEn results, prediction equations were developed based on the following:
The broiler industry is dominated by what is referred to as the big 5 which make up around 90% of broiler meat produced. The two largest producers slaughter close to 4 million broilers per week each. The major companies are integrated, however, not in the true sense of the word due to companies having excess capacity of day-old chicks and feed milling which are sold to smaller competitors in order to contribute to overhead recovery. The major producers own their own farms, however, contract broiler production is on the increase with major producers focusing on the front-end of the value chain.
Imports
Poultry imports increased by 4.4% to 231,303 tons in 2009, of which 89% was poultry meat. The origin of imports into South Africa are mainly from Brazil which accounted for 71.8% followed by Argentina at 13.6% and then Canada 5.1%, Australia 4.1%, USA 2.7% and other countries making up the remainder.
Cost of Production
Feed costs have always been a significant portion of poultry production and after the dramatic increases in 2008 in the main raw materials, maize and soya oilcake, prices have declined but not to the same levels experienced prior to 2008. The poultry industry's current profit margins continue to be under pressure due to high feed costs, over-supply through both significant additional local production and higher imports and the impact of the recession on consumer demand.
Feed volume is 4 million tons per annum for the poultry industry with the main feed ingredients being maize (59.3%), soya oilcake (16%), sunflower oilcake (5.6%) and wheaten bran (6.3%). The major raw materials are all sourced locally; however, the majority of soya oilcake is imported from Argentina. Maize and soya oilcake makeup approximately 80% of the cost of broiler feeds. The purchase of these major ingredients is through exchanges and is therefore subject to supply and demand fluctuations in the world market. Due to soya oilcake being imported, freight and exchange rates also need to be managed. Sophisticated financial instruments have become the order of the day with the necessary expertise and due diligence required. Wheat is not available for feed manufacture unless it has been downgraded for human consumption and supply is therefore erratic. Fish meal, full fat soya, prime gluten and canola oilcake are available at competitive prices from time to time and are used as alternatives to soya oilcake. The major integrators use their own poultry by-products from processing either as a combination meal or as feather meal, carcass meal and poultry oil.
Most South African integrators measure profit as return per square meter of broiler house per year. Due to this, stocking densities tend to be high with yields per square meter exceeding 35 kg/m2. As a consequence, cycle length impacts profitability and turn-around time becomes critical. One strategy used to deal with this is to change the litter every cycle and have a complete clean-out per crop. Wood shavings, wheat straw and sunflower hulls are used as litter material.
Broiler Market
The market size for broilers ranges from 1.65 to 1.85 kilograms dependant on the products to be manufactured. The quick service restaurant business is increasing with a smaller live weight sought after with uniform portion sizes. Retail and wholesale of individually quick frozen (IQF) portions is where the bulk of the market lies. South Africans prefer dark meat (drums, thighs and wings) as opposed to breast meat which often sells at a premium to breast meat. Live bird sales are on the decline, as are whole processed birds.
Feed Evaluation Systems
Knowledge of the nutritional value of feedstuffs and the nutrient requirements of poultry is crucial for the nutritionist composing the feed. The most important tools here are an extensive, sound feedstuff list and sound nutrient requirements. The majority of nutritionists in South Africa have technical agreements with international partners predominantly of European origin. Over and above this, nutritional research is conducted by individual companies as well as by local Universities.
Energy
A distinction in energy systems is made between adult poultry (breeders and layers) and broilers. In the past, most companies conducted cockerel digestibility studies on raw materials and corrected for nitrogen and intake, the well known Apparent Metabolisable Energy system. Using these AMEn results, prediction equations were developed based on the following:
1. Multiple regression on AMEn cockerel with the determining variables digestible protein, digestible fat and digestible carbohydrates: AMEn adult = 18.03*Dig.Protein+38.83*Dig.Fat+17.32*Dig.Carbohydrates)/1000
2. Regression analyses based on poultry trials with proximate analysis as the determining variables;
3. Chemical composition within specific product groups where the energy value can be predicted accurately, e.g. Molasses based on sugar content;
New adult energy systems are being developed due to the traditional AME cockerel data being determined at 1% calcium and in a non-productive environment which may not be relevant to breeding and laying birds.
Broiler energy calculation is similar to adult poultry, however, the calculation with digestible nutrients differs, particularly with regard to protein:
2. Regression analyses based on poultry trials with proximate analysis as the determining variables;
3. Chemical composition within specific product groups where the energy value can be predicted accurately, e.g. Molasses based on sugar content;
New adult energy systems are being developed due to the traditional AME cockerel data being determined at 1% calcium and in a non-productive environment which may not be relevant to breeding and laying birds.
Broiler energy calculation is similar to adult poultry, however, the calculation with digestible nutrients differs, particularly with regard to protein:
1. Multiple regression on AMEn broiler with determining variables, digestible protein, digestible fat and digestible carbohydrates: AMEn broiler = (15.56*Dig.Protein+38.83*Dig.Fat+17.32*Dig.Carbohydrates)/1000
2. Regression analyses based on poultry trials with Weende analysis as the determining variables.
The use of these energy equations allows for quick energy determination of new raw materials and results in robust energy calculations and valuing raw materials within a matrix. Poultry performance, when matrix values for energy are based on these calculations appear more predictable when compared to in vivo cockerel AME studies.
Amino Acids
The available amino acids in feed raw materials are expressed in apparent faecal digestible terms determined in adult cockerels. A number of studies have validated this methodology as being superior to using total amino acids. There is increasing interest in expressing amino acid digestibility on the analysis of ileal digesta, however, consensus on what constitutes basal endogenous losses and a universal calculation of standardised ileal digestibility values still needs to be elucidated.
2. Regression analyses based on poultry trials with Weende analysis as the determining variables.
The use of these energy equations allows for quick energy determination of new raw materials and results in robust energy calculations and valuing raw materials within a matrix. Poultry performance, when matrix values for energy are based on these calculations appear more predictable when compared to in vivo cockerel AME studies.
Amino Acids
The available amino acids in feed raw materials are expressed in apparent faecal digestible terms determined in adult cockerels. A number of studies have validated this methodology as being superior to using total amino acids. There is increasing interest in expressing amino acid digestibility on the analysis of ileal digesta, however, consensus on what constitutes basal endogenous losses and a universal calculation of standardised ileal digestibility values still needs to be elucidated.
Phosphorus
The retainable phosphorus system developed by Jan Dirk Van Der Klis in The Netherlands in the early 1990's is predominantly used. The major ingredient used to supply phosphorus is a combination of monocalcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate. Due to this, water and citric acid solubility are different and dependant on the supplier. Judicious analysis and subsequent matrix values are critical. Phytases are routinely used in all poultry feeds with differing use of nutrients applied to the enzyme dependant on where in the poultry chain you are being measured.
Additives
The use of anti-coccidials and sub therapeutic doses of antibiotics (anti-microbial growth promoters) is common practice, although there are niche markets where coccidiosis vaccines are used combined with various alternatives such as probiotics, organic acids and essential oils. The cost of the alternatives is the main issue as equal performance can be achieved on either strategy. Extracting a premium for "organic" chicken is small in South Africa as the mainstream market is for cheap poultry meat.
Enzymes
The retainable phosphorus system developed by Jan Dirk Van Der Klis in The Netherlands in the early 1990's is predominantly used. The major ingredient used to supply phosphorus is a combination of monocalcium phosphate and dicalcium phosphate. Due to this, water and citric acid solubility are different and dependant on the supplier. Judicious analysis and subsequent matrix values are critical. Phytases are routinely used in all poultry feeds with differing use of nutrients applied to the enzyme dependant on where in the poultry chain you are being measured.
Additives
The use of anti-coccidials and sub therapeutic doses of antibiotics (anti-microbial growth promoters) is common practice, although there are niche markets where coccidiosis vaccines are used combined with various alternatives such as probiotics, organic acids and essential oils. The cost of the alternatives is the main issue as equal performance can be achieved on either strategy. Extracting a premium for "organic" chicken is small in South Africa as the mainstream market is for cheap poultry meat.
Enzymes
Due to the main ingredients in poultry diets being maize and soya oilcake, non starch polysaccharide enzymes (NSP) are used, but to a lesser extent than in other countries. More recently, the pressure on energy costs since 2008 has caused a decrease in energy specifications, or conversely use of energy contributing enzymes with little regard to substrate levels in diets. Claims by enzyme producers with regards to "gut health" have also led to increased use of NSP enzymes by feed companies. The use of mannanase is also gaining ground in vegetable protein diets with high levels of soya oilcake.
Economical Feeding Levels
1. Phase Feeding
Ideally feed should be adjusted on a daily basis to meet the broilers needs under a given set of circumstances. Basically the feed content of optimum dietary amino acids decreases with age, whereas energy content increases. Three to five phases are fed in South Africa and are usually based on a given level of intake, e.g. 400 grams of starter crumble. The length of the various phases is dependent on the growth rates achieved and economics thereof, however, practical constraints such as bin sizes and truck compartment size also dictate. The achievement of minimum weight for age has also determined phase length or, alternatively, feed specifications. Starter diets affect overall growth rate or body weight development and Grower diets have the greatest impact on feed conversion ratio.
2. Feed Form and Pellet Quality
Feed structure, feed form and pellet quality affect feed intake and thus nutrient intake and ultimately broiler performance. Most operations feed crumbles to approximately 15 days of age followed by pellets of 3.5mm to 4.5 mm in diameter. Commercially an interaction exists between pellet quality and energy level of the diet which complicates the predictive ability in feed intake and resultant growth rates. At high stocking densities (>20 birds/m2) decreasing energy levels sometimes result in better performance due to better pellet quality and hence higher intakes. The classical work of Leo Jensen on pellet quality comes to mind and as stocking density increases, feeding time becomes critical to performance.
3. Nutrient Density
Experienced nutritionists intuitively know that there is some concentration of each nutrient that maximises performance for a given genetic stock and environment and thus have a fairly good estimate of the most economic feeding level. Manipulation of nutrient densities are modified over time in an attempt to respond to perceived changes in genetic make-up, production goals and prevailing nutrient costs. Developing dose-response curves based on local environments and "ways of working" have gained momentum and appear most appropriate in determining optimal diet densities and have allowed for in-house nutritional modelling. Broilers are fed in flocks and therefore density is reduced to units per kilogram and assumes that all birds eat similar quantities of feed and that intake is to appetite. Broilers eat to satisfy requirements for maintenance, activity and growth and if feed intake does not equate to appetite, growth rate is compromised. Diet formulation can influence feed intake, however, under commercial conditions bird management in terms of stocking density, environmental temperature, lighting programs and feed texture have a major synergistic effect on feed intake. Diet density plays an important interacting role and as a general comment low density diets do not work in integrations where profit is measured as return per square meter of broiler house per year.
Current Issues and Interests
1. AGP use
Antibiotics used in food animals selects for bacteria resistant to antibiotics used in humans and these might spread via food to humans and cause human infection, hence the banning of growth promoters in Europe. The actual danger seems small and the low dosages used are an unquantified hazard. Although some antibiotics are used in animals and humans, most of the resistance problem in humans has arisen from human use. In South Africa consumers want access to cheap animal protein with little regard to how it was produced bar a small section of the population with high net worth. This section of the population is becoming more vocal and the preceding preamble may be academic as the perception of these consumers is that poultry meat is unsafe and may affect their health. The adoption of alternatives to antibiotics is unlikely to come from Government legislation but from consumers or retail groups trying to obtain a competitive advantage and using the media to communicate their message.
2. Link Nutrition
Under commercial conditions eggs within a single tray will hatch over a 24-36 hour window during which time the birds which have pipped are without feed. The early hatching chicks are therefore at a disadvantage because of the prolonged fasting period and potential dehydration. There are a number of reviews by Yael Noy, Michael Kidd, Peter Ferket and Steve Leeson available in the literature that cover feeding the embryo, feed and water in the hatcher and in transport, as well as prestarter feeds. The embryonic developmental period and first week after hatching has become a large portion (45%) of the life span of the chicken. The impact of these phases on chick uniformity and subsequent market size uniformity are of commercial interest.
3. Managing the Energy cost
Starch from maize is the major energy source in broiler feeds. The energy content of broiler formulations makes up the greatest cost of the diet. The properties of starch from different origins in South Africa (e.g. dry land versus irrigated) vary and these properties determine its resistance to enzymatic degradation. Literature indicates that cultivar has a larger impact on the kinetics of starch digestion and is independent of nitrogen fertilisation. The effects of protein level and the impact of slowly or rapidly digestible starch on feed conversion efficiency are interesting observations. Further investigations will elucidate the impact of enzyme application on animal performance.
Economical Feeding Levels
1. Phase Feeding
Ideally feed should be adjusted on a daily basis to meet the broilers needs under a given set of circumstances. Basically the feed content of optimum dietary amino acids decreases with age, whereas energy content increases. Three to five phases are fed in South Africa and are usually based on a given level of intake, e.g. 400 grams of starter crumble. The length of the various phases is dependent on the growth rates achieved and economics thereof, however, practical constraints such as bin sizes and truck compartment size also dictate. The achievement of minimum weight for age has also determined phase length or, alternatively, feed specifications. Starter diets affect overall growth rate or body weight development and Grower diets have the greatest impact on feed conversion ratio.
2. Feed Form and Pellet Quality
Feed structure, feed form and pellet quality affect feed intake and thus nutrient intake and ultimately broiler performance. Most operations feed crumbles to approximately 15 days of age followed by pellets of 3.5mm to 4.5 mm in diameter. Commercially an interaction exists between pellet quality and energy level of the diet which complicates the predictive ability in feed intake and resultant growth rates. At high stocking densities (>20 birds/m2) decreasing energy levels sometimes result in better performance due to better pellet quality and hence higher intakes. The classical work of Leo Jensen on pellet quality comes to mind and as stocking density increases, feeding time becomes critical to performance.
3. Nutrient Density
Experienced nutritionists intuitively know that there is some concentration of each nutrient that maximises performance for a given genetic stock and environment and thus have a fairly good estimate of the most economic feeding level. Manipulation of nutrient densities are modified over time in an attempt to respond to perceived changes in genetic make-up, production goals and prevailing nutrient costs. Developing dose-response curves based on local environments and "ways of working" have gained momentum and appear most appropriate in determining optimal diet densities and have allowed for in-house nutritional modelling. Broilers are fed in flocks and therefore density is reduced to units per kilogram and assumes that all birds eat similar quantities of feed and that intake is to appetite. Broilers eat to satisfy requirements for maintenance, activity and growth and if feed intake does not equate to appetite, growth rate is compromised. Diet formulation can influence feed intake, however, under commercial conditions bird management in terms of stocking density, environmental temperature, lighting programs and feed texture have a major synergistic effect on feed intake. Diet density plays an important interacting role and as a general comment low density diets do not work in integrations where profit is measured as return per square meter of broiler house per year.
Current Issues and Interests
1. AGP use
Antibiotics used in food animals selects for bacteria resistant to antibiotics used in humans and these might spread via food to humans and cause human infection, hence the banning of growth promoters in Europe. The actual danger seems small and the low dosages used are an unquantified hazard. Although some antibiotics are used in animals and humans, most of the resistance problem in humans has arisen from human use. In South Africa consumers want access to cheap animal protein with little regard to how it was produced bar a small section of the population with high net worth. This section of the population is becoming more vocal and the preceding preamble may be academic as the perception of these consumers is that poultry meat is unsafe and may affect their health. The adoption of alternatives to antibiotics is unlikely to come from Government legislation but from consumers or retail groups trying to obtain a competitive advantage and using the media to communicate their message.
2. Link Nutrition
Under commercial conditions eggs within a single tray will hatch over a 24-36 hour window during which time the birds which have pipped are without feed. The early hatching chicks are therefore at a disadvantage because of the prolonged fasting period and potential dehydration. There are a number of reviews by Yael Noy, Michael Kidd, Peter Ferket and Steve Leeson available in the literature that cover feeding the embryo, feed and water in the hatcher and in transport, as well as prestarter feeds. The embryonic developmental period and first week after hatching has become a large portion (45%) of the life span of the chicken. The impact of these phases on chick uniformity and subsequent market size uniformity are of commercial interest.
3. Managing the Energy cost
Starch from maize is the major energy source in broiler feeds. The energy content of broiler formulations makes up the greatest cost of the diet. The properties of starch from different origins in South Africa (e.g. dry land versus irrigated) vary and these properties determine its resistance to enzymatic degradation. Literature indicates that cultivar has a larger impact on the kinetics of starch digestion and is independent of nitrogen fertilisation. The effects of protein level and the impact of slowly or rapidly digestible starch on feed conversion efficiency are interesting observations. Further investigations will elucidate the impact of enzyme application on animal performance.
4. Managing Health through Nutrition
Some nutrients regulate the type of immune response, however, the complexity of pathogens and their different routes of infection make universal recommendations for inclusion of immunomodulatory nutrients in poultry diets difficult. The interest in this field of nutrition emanates from the digestive tract being the largest immune tissue requiring proper nutritional care and feeding. The over- or misuse of the term "gut health" by a number of suppliers highlights this point, however, the take home message is vague at present.
Gastrointestinal diseases are multifactorial in nature and involve subtle shifts in intestinal microbial populations, generally termed dysbacteriosis. This condition is common in South African broilers. Insufficient knowledge currently exists of digestive ecology to predict how community changes might negatively impact bird performance or how these communities can be positively manipulated. Various nutritional manipulations are successful, however, we are still poorly prepared in dealing with problems related to microfloral populations.
Mycotoxins are suspected and many times documented to be involved in the development of: tibial dyschrodroplasia, cage layer fatigue, rickets, malabsorption, capillary bleeding, immunosupression, femoral head necrosis, articular gout and pododermatitis. The Fusarium class of mycotoxins is mostly incriminated in the above clinical syndromes and lead to musculoskeletal problems resulting in culling, decreased weight gain, poor feed conversion and carcass condemnations. In South Africa Fusarium mycotoxins are common in maize and maize and wheat by-products. The syndromes mentioned above are common, however, background levels of Fusarium mycotoxins are always ever present. The most effective treatment has been the blending of maize from different regions to whatever maize is being used in that respective mill at the time.
5. Nutritional Welfare
The most serious welfare problem is lameness where nutrition is directly implicated. The level of calcium, phosphorus and Vitamin D are mostly implicated. The cause of lameness needs to be diagnosed as there are a number of causes: rickets, tibial dyschondroplasia, valgus-varus, osteomyelitis, synovitis/arthritis, ruptured tendon, perosis and splayed legs. More recent work by Edgar Oviedo from North Carolina has implicated hatchery and the transport of chicks to farms as having an impact on leg defects and ultimately culling of broilers at later ages.
Pododermatitis and breast blisters may have a nutritional implication particularly with high protein diets, however, this problem comes and goes which points more to on farm management when diets specifications remain constant. Fatty liver and kidney syndrome, ascites, sudden death syndrome, rupture of the gastrocnemius and deep pectoral myopathy are common issues, the former metabolic problems having to do with rapid growth. Nutritional intervention and manipulation with regard to welfare issues are becoming increasingly more important.
Conclusion
Feed cost in poultry production will remain the highest input cost and will drive the pursuit of cheaper more efficient conversion of raw materials into animal protein through various forms of technology. Poultry products that are safe for human consumption and produced through sustainable means of production with due regard for welfare are the order of the day.
Some nutrients regulate the type of immune response, however, the complexity of pathogens and their different routes of infection make universal recommendations for inclusion of immunomodulatory nutrients in poultry diets difficult. The interest in this field of nutrition emanates from the digestive tract being the largest immune tissue requiring proper nutritional care and feeding. The over- or misuse of the term "gut health" by a number of suppliers highlights this point, however, the take home message is vague at present.
Gastrointestinal diseases are multifactorial in nature and involve subtle shifts in intestinal microbial populations, generally termed dysbacteriosis. This condition is common in South African broilers. Insufficient knowledge currently exists of digestive ecology to predict how community changes might negatively impact bird performance or how these communities can be positively manipulated. Various nutritional manipulations are successful, however, we are still poorly prepared in dealing with problems related to microfloral populations.
Mycotoxins are suspected and many times documented to be involved in the development of: tibial dyschrodroplasia, cage layer fatigue, rickets, malabsorption, capillary bleeding, immunosupression, femoral head necrosis, articular gout and pododermatitis. The Fusarium class of mycotoxins is mostly incriminated in the above clinical syndromes and lead to musculoskeletal problems resulting in culling, decreased weight gain, poor feed conversion and carcass condemnations. In South Africa Fusarium mycotoxins are common in maize and maize and wheat by-products. The syndromes mentioned above are common, however, background levels of Fusarium mycotoxins are always ever present. The most effective treatment has been the blending of maize from different regions to whatever maize is being used in that respective mill at the time.
5. Nutritional Welfare
The most serious welfare problem is lameness where nutrition is directly implicated. The level of calcium, phosphorus and Vitamin D are mostly implicated. The cause of lameness needs to be diagnosed as there are a number of causes: rickets, tibial dyschondroplasia, valgus-varus, osteomyelitis, synovitis/arthritis, ruptured tendon, perosis and splayed legs. More recent work by Edgar Oviedo from North Carolina has implicated hatchery and the transport of chicks to farms as having an impact on leg defects and ultimately culling of broilers at later ages.
Pododermatitis and breast blisters may have a nutritional implication particularly with high protein diets, however, this problem comes and goes which points more to on farm management when diets specifications remain constant. Fatty liver and kidney syndrome, ascites, sudden death syndrome, rupture of the gastrocnemius and deep pectoral myopathy are common issues, the former metabolic problems having to do with rapid growth. Nutritional intervention and manipulation with regard to welfare issues are becoming increasingly more important.
Conclusion
Feed cost in poultry production will remain the highest input cost and will drive the pursuit of cheaper more efficient conversion of raw materials into animal protein through various forms of technology. Poultry products that are safe for human consumption and produced through sustainable means of production with due regard for welfare are the order of the day.
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Authors:
Rainbow Farms Pty Ltd
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1 de mayo de 2017
It depends on the weight of birds. In open-sided houses we can house 14 to 18 kilograms. That is 10 birds if slaughtered at 1.4 to 1.8kg. If the slaughter weight is more than 2 kg, we may have to reduce the number, especially if the temperature crosses 28C.
In the open-sided houses with cross ventilation only and temperatures crossing 30C, we house only 7 to 8 birds per sq. meter and avoid daytime feeding when temperatures cross 35C.
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Rainbow Farms Pty Ltd
24 de abril de 2017
Sfiso,
It depends on the production system that you are going to use. A modern completely environmentally controlled house can house up to 22 broilers per square meter. An open sided house, with curtains and fans, can stock at 14 to 18 broilers per square meter. Less sophisticated housing can be stocked lower than the numbers given above.
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21 de agosto de 2020
Who are the main suppliers of raw materials and nutrients used for making broiler and layers feed in Gauteng?
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2 de mayo de 2017
Better 5 birds per sqm if the temperature is more than 40C in the house and the slaughter weight is 2 kg. Necessary to distribute fresh water or change the water in drinker every 2 hours and feed only at night. Avoid daytime feeding after 3 weeks of age.
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24 de abril de 2017
How much space is required for 1 chicken?
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20 de enero de 2011
I really appreciate the work done by author to show contour of Africal poultry Industry.
I´m also thankful for providing such a wonderful statistical data with technical information
churned out with his due diligence.
But some more expections are lacking from the reader side like me, who is interested to know the identities of those 5 main players who contribute around 90 % of African industry with thier profiles viz. Breed, feed production, thier own brand names in processed chicken etc.
I would also like to know the seasonal production cost & rate realization for last 2 -3 years.
I would be really appreciate it if you could share this information with us which we are lacking & expecting.
Regards,
Dr Jaydip
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18 de enero de 2011
NO DOUBT, THIS IS A PROLIFIC TECHNICAL PAPER THAT SHOULD NOT BE LIMITED TO THE ENGORMIX.COM AUDIENCE ALONE. IT CONTAINED LOTS OF NUTRITIONAL INFORMATION WHICH WERE EBULLIENTLY CHURNED OUT OF THE COMMERCIAL BROILER PRODUCTION FIELD. THIS COMPOSITION WAS BORNE OUT OF VERY RIGOROUS AND TIME-TAKEN EFFORTS THAT WERE PAINSTAKINGLY APPLIED TO IMPACT THE STAKEHOLDERS PSYCHES.
WE AS A COMMUNITY, IT IS SUGGESTED, SHOULD SERIOUSLY CONSIDER THIS WRITE-UP FOR PRESENTATION, NOT ONLY IN THE RELEVANT GATHERING OF THE SCHOLARS, FARMERS AND STAKEHOLDERS BUT ALSO AMONGST THE STUDENTS OF ADVANCE LEARNING IN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY, VETERINARY AND AGRICULTURE ACADEMICS, TO ENABLE THEM HAVE A FEEL OF PRACTICALITY IN POULTRY/COMMERCIAL BROILER NUTRITION, PRODUCTION, AND MARKETING.
LASTLY, I WANT TO EXPRESS MY APPRECIATION FOR THE JOB WELL DONE BY THE AUTHOR, WHILE AT THE SAME TIME, REMARKING THAT, PRICES OF THE PROCESSED BROILER AND LIVE CHICKENS WERE NOT INDICATED, FOR THE BENEFIT OF SOME OF US THAT ARE STUDENTS (MBA), LOOKING FORWARD FOR OUR DISSERTATIONS TO BE IN CUSTODY OF DATA ANALYSIS, AS ENUMERATED IN THE PAPER. ALSO, IDENTITIES OF THE BIG 5 IN SOUTH AFRICAN COMMERCIAL BROILER BUSINESS WERE NOT ELUCIDATED!?
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18 de enero de 2011
A very good work as this paper provide us an idea about the commercial poultry industry of South Africa. Well done.
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17 de enero de 2011
An excellent study which needs to be replicated in other regions . My congratulations.
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