Uses of Litter

• As Biomass for generating Electricity 

• As fertilizer for crop production 

• Biogas production 

• Compost improvement 

• Feed in fish ponds 

A substantial proportion of the litter or manure is estimated to be disposed of by spreading on croplands and in aquaculture ponds. 

Poultry Litter is considered as high value-fertilizers for coffee, pepper, or orchards like longan and 
grape-fruits (Dan et al., 2004). 

In most cases, especially highly acidic soils, poultry litter neutralizes the soil. Through repeated applications, a pH of 7.0 is in reach of nearly any soil. Litter acts both as fertiliser and soil conditioner unlike inorganic fertilisers that do not supply soil organic matter (SOM) to soils. 

In the case of warm, moist, sandy soils, it is assumed that 50% of the manure will be mineralized and release nutrients in the first year, the remaining nutrients will be held in the organic matter for later release at about 50% of the remaining amounts each year. 

The nutrient composition of poultry manure varies with the type of bird, the feed ration, the proportion of litter to droppings, the manure handling system, and the type of litter. 

The primary nutrients of concern in poultry litter are nitrogen and phosphorous. Both nutrients have value as a plant food, but they also can cause contamination of surface and ground waters with excessive application. 

Table 1: 

TypicalRangeofNitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium Values for Broiler Litter 

Adapted from VanDevender et al., 2000. 

Values are for 2,054 broiler litter samples analyzed byUniversityofArkansas Agricultural Diagnostics Labfrom 1993 to 2000. 

Table 2: 

Litter nutrient analysis at Applied Broiler Research Unit during 9-flock growout 

Initial bedding material was 50/50 mix of rice hulls and pine shavings/sawdust. 

2 Caked litter was removed after each flock, but samples were taken before cake removal. 

3 Figures are averages of four 40 x 400' houses on the farm. 

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS IN APPLICATION 

In a broad sense, the basic elements for nutrient management include correct adherence to the following points: 
- Assimilate information to plan the application of animal waste; and know the crop needs 

- Know the soils 

- Know the sources of nutrients 

- Maintain records to keep an account of above components 

The importance of selecting an appropriate site for manure applications cannot be overemphasized. Consideration of potential effects on the environment and neighbor relations when applying poultry manure can be very important to the success of any manure utilization program. Attention to details prior to spreading can potentially reduce problems in these areas and minimize adverse public relations. Some suggested practices for site selection are: 

1. Do not apply poultry litter to land that is too steep. Ideally, slopes of land should not be more than 10 to 15 percent. 
2. Use sites as far away from surface waters as possible. When spreading in close proximity to surface waters, drainage ditches or wetlands, use either a 100-foot setback or a 35-foot vegetative buffer. Applications from wells must be maintained at a minimum of100 feet. 

3. Use the P-Index to determine if your farm represents a high risk site for phosphorous runoff. For farms representing a high risk situation, use management practices that reduce this risk. 

4. Use sites that are as isolated as possible. The farther away from neighbors and public facilities the better.

Out of sight often means out of mind.

5. Pay attention to weather forecasts before spreading. Avoid spreading prior to heavy rains. Be aware of prevailing wind conditions and avoid spreading when it might have an impact on neighbors. 

6. Apply poultry litter when crops can best use the nutrients. 

Other important information necessary for nutrient application planning includes: 

(a) Proximity of fields receiving animal waste to dwellings and public roads; 

(b) Usable acres for application; 

(c) Location of wells, springs, ponds, sinkholes, wetlands, drainageways, and steep slopes; and 

(d) Location and classification of waterbodies and streams. 

In Fish Ponds: 

Animal manure is widely used in fish production in earthen ponds. The quality of manure as a fertilizer varies depending on the source animal and the quality of feed fed to the animal. Pig, chicken and duck manures increase fish production more than cow and sheep manure. Animals fed high quality feeds (grains) produce manure that is better as a fertilizer than those fed diets high in crude fibre. Fine manures provide more surface area for the growth of microorganisms and produce better results than large clumps of manure. 
Manure should be distributed evenly over the pond surface area. Accumulations of manure on the pond bottom produce low oxygen conditions (during decomposition) in the sediment resulting to reduced microbial activity and sometimes result in the sudden release of toxic chemicals into the water. 

Manure application rates depend on the size of the pond, which is expressed as surface area of the water in the pond. The recommended rate is 50g of dry matter per m2 per week i.e. 5Kg/100m2/week. 
The maximum rate depends on the quality of the manure, the oxygen supply in the pond and water temperature. If early morning dissolved oxygen (DO) is less than 2 ppm, manuring should be reduced or stopped until DO increases. When water temperatures are less than 18° C, manure application should be discontinued. At low temperatures the rate of decomposition decreases and manure may accumulate on the pond bottom. A subsequent increase in temperature could then result in oxygen depletion. 

While pasteurized poultry litter (PPL) does provide significant amounts of N, P, K, and micronutrients such as Mn and Zn for plant growth, the release of these nutrients occurs primarily during the first few weeks after potting. However, the release of Mg appears to be delayed. PPL provided Mn and Zn about as well as an inorganic micronutrient blend. However, for reasons not understood, dicots such as downy jasmine and chinese hibiscus grew best with PPL amendment, whereas areca palm, a monocot, performed rather poorly with PPL compared with the inorganic micronutrient source. The rapid initial release of P by PPL into the environment is a major drawback to the use of this material. 

LIMITATIONS 
ACCESSABILITY TO GRAZING CATTLE: 

Where poultry litter is used as fertiliser and spread evenly across a pasture the pasture may be grazed by cattle and the litter may transfer several pathogens to the cattle. 

Results suggest that the manure application based on agronomic P rates may yield significant bacterial loading to downstream waterbodies if rainfall occurs soon after manure application. 

Fresh chicken manure may contain disease organisms that could contaminate root crops (carrots, radishes, beets) and leaves (lettuce, spinach), so uncomposted manure should not be used on the soil in a vegetable garden. 
Salmonella and E. coli have been recovered from litter or manure for up to 120 days after the removal of poultry flocks that were raised on the litter, or produced the manure. Salmonella and E. coli have also been shown to survive in litter or manure-treated soils for up to 2 months. 

The hardy E. coli O157:H7 can survive for 21 months in an unaerated manure pile and for 4 months in an aerated pile. Even harsh winters cannot eradicate the germ: It can survive 100 days in frozen manure. 
(http://www.booktrope.com/chapter/six-arguments-for-a-greener-diet-argument-2-less-foodborne-illness/) 
Foodborne illnesses occur worldwide. They can be caused by microbes like Salmonella or by chemical substances like mycotoxins. Salmonella are enteric bacteria that cause a significant proportion of foodborne illnesses. There are over 2,000 serologically distinct types (serotypes) of Salmonella. Expressions of the illnesses caused by Salmonella range from mild to severe diarrhea to anorexia, fever, nervous and respiratory signs, abortion, depression, shock, and death. 

Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by fungi. They can be quite toxic to susceptible human beings and animals ingesting the mycotoxins. Expressions of toxicity in affected individuals can range from death to skin lesions or signs and symptoms of hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, or genotoxicity. Mycotoxins are also carcinogenic, mutagenic, or teratogenic and can have adverse effects on the immune system. There are more than 300 known mycotoxins, and a large proportion of the world’s cereal grains is estimated to be contaminated with one or more mycotoxins. 

After the 1997 incident on theChesapeake Baythat sickened people, Maryland’s environmental agency adopted a measure to make poultry processors share responsibility for controlling pollution from manure. 

Many of the bacteria in Poultry Litter are pathogenic and pose a health risk. 

Some of the potential pathogens in poultry litter were identified by Alexander et al. (1968). 

Clostridium, Corynebacterium, Salmonella, Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Enterobacteriaceae, Salmonella and E coli are the predominant pathogens found in the poultry litter. 

There are more than 100 zoonoses (Decker and Steele, 1966; Joint WHO/FAO Committee on Zoonoses, 1959; Diesch, 1971), some of which are commonly found in animal waste. 

Recycling animal waste qithout treatment as a feed ingredient represents a departure from normal feeding practices and may result in an increased incidence of these pathogens. 

Incidents of botulism caused by Clostridium botulinium have been reported in cattle fed poultry litter in some countries. This problem, in all cases, was caused by the presence of poultry carcasses in the litter. 

(UTILIZATION OF POULTRY LITTER AS FEED FOR BEEF CATTLE a; Joseph P. Fontenot; John W. Hancock Jr. Professor; Department of Animal and Poultry Sciences; Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University; Blacksburg, Virginia 24061) 

Alexander et al. (1968) reports presence of the following 

Clostridium perfringens Clostridium chauvoei 

Clostridium novyi Clostridium sordellii 

Clostridium butyricum Clostridium cochlearium 

Closrridium multifermentans Clostridium carnis 

Clostridium tetanomorphum Clostridium histolyticum 

Corynebaeterium pyogenes Corynebacterium equi 

Salmonella blockley Salmonella saint-paul 

Salmonella typhimurium vat.copenhagenActinobacillus sp. 

Yeast Myocobacterium spp. 

Enterobacteriaceae (other than Salmonella) Bacillus spp. 

Staphylococcus spp. Streptococcus spp. 

Some Diseases and Parasites Transmittable to Humans from Animal Manure 

Bacteria 
Anthrax Bacillus anthracis Skin sores, fever, chills, lethargy, headache, nausea, vomiting, shortness of breath, cough, nose/throat congestion, pneumonia, joint stiffness, joint pain  Brucellosis Brucella abortus, Brucella melitensis, Brucella suis Weakness, lethargy, fever, chills, sweating, headache Colibaciliosis Escherichia coli (some serotypes) Diarrhea, abdominal gas Coliform mastitis-metritis Escherichia coli (some serotypes) Diarrhea, abdominal gas Erysipelas Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae Skin inflammation, rash, facial swelling, fever, chills, sweating, joint stiffness, muscle aches, headache, nausea, vomiting Leptospirosis Leptospira Pomona Abdominal pain, muscle pain, vomiting, fever Listeriosis Listeria monocytogenes Fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea Salmonellosis Salmonella species Abdominal pain, diarrhea, nausea, chills, fever, headache Tetanus Clostridium tetani Violent muscle spasms, “lockjaw” spasms of jaw muscles, difficulty breathing Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Mycobacterium avium Cough, fatigue, fever, pain in chest, back, and/or kidneys Rickettsia Q fever Coxiella burneti Fever, headache, muscle pains, joint pain, dry cough, chest pain, abdominal pain, jaundice Viruses Foot and Mouth Virus Rash, sore throat, fever Hog Cholera Virus New Castle Virus Psittacosis Virus Pneumonia Fungi Coccidioidycosis Coccidioides immitus Cough, chest pain, fever, chills, sweating, headache, muscle stiffness, joint stiffness, rash wheezing Histoplasmosis Histoplasma capsulatum Fever, chills, muscle ache, muscle stiffness, cough, rash, joint pain, join stiffness Ringworm Various microsporum and trichophyton Itching, rash Protozoa 
Balantidiasis Balatidium coli Coccidiosis Eimeria species Diarrhea, abdominal gas Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium species Watery diarrhea, dehydration, weakness, abdominal cramping Giardiasis Giardia lamblia Diarrhea, abdominal pain, abdominal gas, nausea, vomiting, headache, fever Toxoplasmosis Toxoplasma species Headache, lethargy, seizures, reduced cognitive function Parasites/Metazoa Ascariasis Ascaris lumbricoides Worms in stool or vomit, fever, cough, abdominal pain, bloody sputum, wheezing, skin rash, shortness of breath Sarcocystiasis Sarcosystis species Fever, diarrhea, abdominal pain.

References: USDA, 1992 (for diseases and responsible organisms). Symptom descriptions were obtained from various medical and public health service Internet websites. Pathogens in animal manure are a potential source of disease in humans and other animals. This list represents a sampling of diseases that may be transmittable to humans. Good exercise is needed to eliminate the pathogens present in the litter before incorporating it as manure.

HORMONES: 
Chicken manure is full of hormones particularly estrogen that make their way into the agricultural produce and may lead to uterine and breast cancer and reproductive problems in the consumers. 
Poultry manure which acts as a vehicle for the phosphorus can well promote pathogens that may affect the plant life. 

ANTIBIOTICS, PESTICIDES 

Poultry litter contains considerable levels of Pesticides and Antibiotics. 

ARSENIC: 
According to estimates from Delmarva Poultry Industry, Inc., 88% of domestically produced broiler chickens are fed an arsenic-containing drug called roxarsone. Some of the arsenic from this drug stays behind in the edible portions of the chicken, and the rest ends up in the poultry manure. 

HEAVY METALS: 

Poultry litter is a potential source of Heavy Metals. 

WASHABLITY: 

Poultry litter is light and will wash off paddocks easily. 

NITROUS OXIDE: 

Nitrous oxide (N2O) is formed mainly during nitrification and denitrification. It has enormous contribution to global warming and ozone layer depletion.  It has been observed that total N2O emission during a 25-day aerobic incubation was more than doubled with a soil amended with CHICKEN MANURE, relating to rapid N mineralization and nitrification after a lag phase (Khalil et al., 2002b) and an indication of priming effect. 
By contrast, relative N2O loss of the added CHICKEN MANURE and crop residues-N coupled with halfrate of inorganic from a groundnut-maize rotation was several-fold lower (0.99%) than under laboratory conditions. However, this value is higher than the lower limit of the global estimate (1.25 ± 1%), but insignificant from an agronomic standpoint. Slow nitrification with composted manure/litter might release small N2O, and even the residual effect could be minimum (Ginting et al., 2003). In contrast, anaerobic microsites could develop within soil aggregates / organic materials, and solubilized-C serves as an energy source for denitrifiers, and thus denitrification-induced N2O could be large (Flessa and Beese, 1995; Stevens et al., 1997). As such, synchronization of the accumulated NO3 - with plant uptake can be beneficial to reduce the above losses. 

EMISSIONS OF AMMONIA ETC. 

Gram negative bacteria are highly prevalent in poultry litter and waste. These Gram negative bacteria convert uric acid in the poultry waste to make harmful ammonia. 

The high labile N in CHICKEN MANURE and its subsequent transformation contribute largely to N loss via NH3 volatilization. Besides, it creates odour annoyance during the growth periods of chicken, manure storage, transport and field application. NH3 volatilization from poultry litter dramatically increases with an increase of pH (>7), moisture content, wind speed, NH3 concentration, temperature, etc. This large loss reduces the agronomic value of the end product. 

As biological waste accumulates in poultry litter, decomposition produces malodorous gases such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia, mercaptans, volatile organic acids, phenols, and alcohols. 

ODOUR: 
Odors associated with livestock and poultry production are the result of natural decomposition of organic material (feed, manure, mortalities). Anaerobic storage and treatment facilities used for liquid systems accommodate the decomposition of complex biological wastes to methane, hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and ammonia. Composting and dry stacking systems decompose organic material into less volatile forms than produced in the anaerobic systems. Properly designed and operated waste management systems 
minimize the generation of offensive odors. Unintended odor problems sometimes occur during the decomposition period as volatile organic compounds are released into the atmosphere, or as a result of management or equipment deficiencies, or adverse climatic conditions.

COMPOSTING POULTRY LITTER 

Composting is a biological process in which organic wastes are stabilized and converted into a product to be used as a soil conditioner and organic fertilizer. This process depends upon the activity of microorganisms. 

These microorganisms require a carbon: nitrogen (C:N) ratio between 15 and 25, amoisture content of 40 to 60%, a pH between 5 and 12, and greater than 30% free air space (Willson, 1989). Nitrogen is calculated by the Kjeldahl method and carbon is determined as described by Haug (1980). Soon after organic material is assembled into a self-insulating mass, the temperature begins to increase as metabolic heat accumulates. At first, mesophilic bacterial growth is stimulated by the higher temperatures, but as inhibitive temperature levels are reached, mesophile activity is limited. The elevated temperature induces thermophilic bacterial 
growth. The pattern is then repeated in a second hotter stage. The process is self-limiting because of excessive accumulation of heat. Temperatures will eventually fall (Finstein and Morris, 1975). For composting to be complete, Stage I compost must be turned, mixed, and aerated for the total process to be repeated in Stage II. Murphy (1990b) defined thermal sections to demonstrate the variability of temperatures at different levels within a Stage I compost pile. Turning and mixing of the material was advantageous because the temperature level striation was not evident in Stage II. Furthermore, earth acted as a major heat sink. On an uninsulated earth foundation, as in a broiler house, heat was conducted away from the pile producing a sharp 50oF temperature gradient within the bottom5 inches of the pile. Mixing assured that all portions of the pile were exposed to composting temperatures. 

Composting removes the majority of animal and human pathogens from the litter but does not eliminate the risk of botulism. 

The composting of poultry litter should be managed so that the process is even and effective. 
Ideally it should have:

• A carbon to nitrogen ratio of 30:1 

• A moisture content of 40%–50% 

A low carbon to nitrogen ratio will result in extensive loss of nitrogen, which would be a problem if straight poultry manure was used. 

Litter should be heaped in rows approximately1.2 mhigh and2.4 mwide to achieve temperatures of60°Cto70°C. This temperature is enough to kill most human and animal pathogens except Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium perfringens and Clostridium botulinum. If litter is stacked too deep, temperatures can exceed95°Cand result in fire. 

Composting poultry litter may reduce the risk of nutrients from poultry litter entering watercourses. 

In practice, poultry litter is often partially composted during storage in heaps before it is spread onto crops or pastures. This may result in 45%–55% of the manure nitrogen being lost during storage. 

Composting reduces the weight and volume of the original material. 

Relative loss of the added CHICKEN MANURE-C was averaged 83% during a 90-day incubation and in-situ retention of labile organic-C was poor in 2 years, signifying long-term episodes to sequestrate its inherent low C. 

Ammonification of the added CHICKEN MANURE was rapid during 1-2 weeks followed by oxidation of NH4 +. The high pH of CHICKEN MANURE remarkably influenced nitrification either after a lag phase or immediately after application, ensuing NO3 - leaching to occur under favourable conditions. Net mineralization/nitrification was greater with CHICKEN MANURE than with other wider C/N ratio organic residues. CHICKEN MANURE-N recovery was relatively low, indicating immobilization and other N loss processes. Likewise, a large N2O loss of added CHICKEN MANURE-N with or without other N sources under field (0.99%) and laboratory (6.66%) conditions was observed, along with presumable NH3 volatilization. Composted CHICKEN MANURE/litter could reduce the loss by limiting the transformation of organic N. Application of CHICKEN MANURE (fresh/composted) either alone or with inorganic fertilizers demonstrated crop yield benefits and reduced the use of the latter as well as a noticeable residual effect to the succeeding crops. 

AMENDMENTS TO POULTRY LITTER 

Successful management to reduce ammonia and its harmful side-effects on poultry and the environment can be aided by the use of litter amendments. 

Sodium bisulfate is considered a nonhazardous and nontoxic substance classified as a GRAS (Generally Regarded as Safe) and a food-grade substance. PLT eliminates ammonia by converting litter ammonium to ammonium sulfate and lowers litter pH to acidify litter. 

The gaseous emission of NH(3) can be inhibited if converted to NH(4)(+) (ammonium), which can be accomplished by lowering litter pH. Aluminum sulfate, commonly referred to as alum, is an acid that produces hydrogen ions (H(+)) when it dissolves, and the hydrogen ions produced by this reaction will attach to ammonia to form ammonium, which further reacts with sulfate ions to form ammonium sulfate--(NH(4))(2)SO(4). 
Acidifiers reduced nitrogen loss through both chemical and microbiological processes. Adsorbent amendments (water treatment residuals and chitosan) reduced nitrogen loss and concentrations of ammonia-producing bacteria and fungi. 

A study inFinlandfound that Peat, which is high in humic acid, when used as poultry litter it was quite effective in controlling ammonia. A number of products have also appeared on the market using de-nitrifying or nitrogen-fixing bacteria. 

Previous studies have shown that the abatement of P transport from land applied manure to water bodies can be achieved with the use of chemical amendments containing aluminum (Al), iron (Fe), or calcium (Ca) [1–7]. These compounds (Al, Fe, or, Ca) work by binding to P in solution thereby forming insoluble compounds. 
Al, Fe, and Ca compounds are believed to reduce ammonia volatilization from poultry litter. 

Chlorotic ring spot 

In Karnataka state inIndia, in 1994, and particularly inEcuador(pacific coast) in 1995 new virus-like symptoms were observed in oil palm nurseries (Solomon and Babu 1998, Chinchilla et al. 1995).  “Chlorotic ring spot” (anillo clorótico) affects nursery palms and caused considerable losses inEcuador. So far, this disease has been found only in that country and inIndia. 

Symptomatic leaf tissue from Indiaand Ecuadorshowed the presence of flexuous filamentous, rod-shaped viral particles, and cytoplasmatic inclusions (pinwheel, scrolls). Based on the morphology of cytoplasmatic inclusions, Solomon and Babu (1998) tentatively placed the virus within sub-division I of Potyviridae. Leaf extracts from diseased plants reacted positively with Potyvirus antisera (Reddy 1996). Viral particles observed on diseased tissue in Ecuadoralso belong to the Potyviridae (Chinchilla et al. 1995, Rivera et al. 1996). 
Coconut cadang-cadang viroid (CCCVd) disease 

CCCVd is the smallest known pathogen and it is biologically distinct from other viroids; it consists of circular or lineal single-stranded RNA with a basic size of 246 or 247, it is thought it can be transmitted by seed or pollen (with low transmission rates) and occur in almost all plant parts. 

The CCCVd-like viroids can be transmitted by seeds or pollen and occur in almost all plant parts. 
Potential control strategies include elimination of reservoir species, vector control, mild strain protection and breeding for host resistance. 

Eradication of diseased plants is usually performed to minimise the spread but is of dubious efficacy due to the difficulties of early diagnosis. 

Among the symptoms are yellow leaf spots appearing water-soaked in reflected light, and translucent yellow in transmitted light during the early stage (lasting two to four years). Nuts become small and rounded, with scars. 
At the medium stage (lasting around two years), the leaf spots become numerous, giving the lower two-thirds of the crown a yellowish appearance, nut production ceases and frond size declines. 
In the late stage (lasting around five years), leaf spots almost join together, leaflets become brittle and palm dies. 
The time from the appearance of first symptoms to tree death ranges from around eight to 16 years and is generally greater in older palms.