Drinking Water Quality Management for Broiler Performance and Carcass Characteristics

1. Introduction

Among agricultural industries, the poultry industry is prominent in many countries, since it supplies the majority of human protein[1]. Providing humans with energy, protein, and essential micronutrients, poultry contributes substantially to food security and nutrition globally. In addition to having short production cycles, poultry can convert a wide variety of agricultural byproducts and wastes into meat and eggs that are edible to humans [2]. Increasing populations, rising incomes, and urbanization will drive demand for meat and eggs in the poultry sector. This situation poses unprecedented challenges for the sector. Smallholders and poor populations, both in urban and in rural areas, benefit greatly from poultry because it provides income, market opportunities, and cost-effective protein. In times of crisis, birds can be sold as household insurance [3]. Unlike older types of broiler chickens, modern meat-type broilers are extremely fast and efficient growers. This remarkable ability of broilers to build muscle with a minimum of feed must be credited to geneticists and nutritionists who have made great advances in breeding and feeding them. The efficiency of broiler production has nevertheless improved significantly due to impressive improvements in broiler management. It is precisely because of the rapid growth of high-performance broilers that proper management has become increasingly important. It is more challenging to manage broilers today than it was a few years ago due to the birds’ inability to tolerate environmental errors [4]. Sustainable management of resources [5] is essential.

It is well known that water constitutes the most important and most widespread chemical compound on earth, being the foundation of all types of life. In poultry farming, water is vitally important for many purposes, including hydration, body temperature regulation, digestion assistance, use as medicinal and vaccine vectors, and use in antiseptic delivery systems. Water is highly important and necessary in the poultry industry due to its involvement in almost every physiological process, its vital role in transferring nutrients to the digestive tract, its important role in regulating body temperature, and water being an integral part of many chemical reactions [6–8]. Water is the most sensitive element in poultry feed, but it is usually only considered when animals have a particular problem or disease [9,10]. Excess salts such as carbonates, nitrates, sulfates, chlorides, and phosphates in water reduce water quality [11,12]. Factors such as soluble solids, suspended solids, soluble organic matter, and pH can affect water quality [13]. Poor water quality and excess salts in the water reduce growth and production, cause anion–cation imbalances, and contribute to diseases such as ascites, renal edema, and coccidiosis in broilers [14,15]. The amount of water consumed in poultry is affected by various factors such as age, ambient temperature, sodium and potassium salts and dietary protein levels, feed intake, soluble solids, enzymes, and other feed additives [16–18]. Excessive salts such as sodium and calcium in drinking water increase the amount of water consumption, dehydrate stools, increase litter humidity and decrease blood potassium concentrations [19,20]. Due to the decrease in rainfall, increase in the utilization of groundwater aquifers, and increase in industrial and agricultural activities, there is evidence of a reduction in groundwater quality. Climate change is also linked to stressed water resources [21].

Besides being a vital nutrient, water also plays an important role in poultry metabolism, including maintaining body temperature, digesting and absorbing food, transporting nutrients, and eliminating waste products through urine. Water consumption by birds is governed by several diverse factors, some of which are cumulative. Therefore, bird health and welfare depend on management procedures that control water quality effectively. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that poultry performance could be enhanced by water quality. This study was undertaken to develop an approach for the management of water quality with water from different regions to optimize chicken breeding with respect to their performance and carcass traits.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Ethical Standards

The Islamic Azad University Animal Care Committee approved all animal experiments, and all experiments described here were conducted in strict accordance with the regulations and guidelines of this committee (no. 1313-IAU. 25 January 2016).

2.2. Animals and Feeds

A total of 240 mixed (6 males and 6 females in each replicate) Ross-308 broilers [22], starting from the age of one day old, were studied. The chicks were weighed and divided into five treatments (the 5 different water sources A–E) with four replicates (12 birds per replicate; compare Aldridge et al. [23]. Therefore, a fully randomized design was applied. The experimental groups included: (1) point A drinking water (control, water from the experimental farm), (2) point B drinking water, (3) point C drinking water, (4) point D drinking water, and (5) point E drinking water. Experimental waters were used in the grower (days 11–24) and finisher (days 25–42) periods as described by Aldridge et al. [23]. The physicochemical properties of the studied waters were measured in the laboratory and are given in Table 1. All experimental treatments received a common diet. Concerning the chicks’ diets, the feed was in line with the levels of nutrients required for the different experimental periods, as per the Ross-308 broiler nutrition specifications and the NRC [24] recommended feed ingredients analysis attained by using the UFFDA software (Software Version: 1.0) [23] program as a ration formulation platform (Table 2).

Table 1. Laboratory analysis (composition) of waters used in the experimental groups.

Drinking Water Quality Management for Broiler Performance and Carcass Characteristics - Image 1

Table 2. Feed ingredients and chemical compositions of broiler diets.

Drinking Water Quality Management for Broiler Performance and Carcass Characteristics - Image 2

2.3. Sample and Analyses

The five water sources were checked for absence of microbiological contamination. The feeds and the drinking water in this study were provided Ad-libitum for birds from start to finish of the experimental periods as described by Aldridge et al. [23]. Chickens were categorized and weighed randomly before being placed in experimental cages. During the first 3 days, the chickens were exposed to permanent lighting, followed by alternating 23 h of light with 1 h of darkness per day. For details, see Gorbannejhad Parapary et al. [26]. In the beginning, the chickens were kept at 37 °C; however, this temperature was gradually reduced by 2 °C each week until the completion of the experiments, when they were kept between 18 and 24 °C. In the beginning, the chicken rearing hall had a humidity level of 55 to 60 percent relative humidity, but in the following weeks, the humidity level reached 65 to 70 percent relative humidity. In the experimental units, chicken weight and feed intake were weighed using a scale (accuracy of 0.01 g). At the end of the breeding period, herd survival percentage was calculated based on the mortality rate in the experimental groups. Body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and water consumption of the birds were recorded according to the methods described by Aggrey et al. [26] in both the growing and finishing period; compare Aldridge et al. [23]. A 2 h starvation period was observed before weighing for complete discharge of digested feed. The average BWG and FI, after adjustment for mortality, were determined to obtain the FCR (feed conversion ratio) as detailed by Bean-Hodgins et al. [27]. On the 42nd day of age, the authors randomly picked two chickens of average weight from each group. They were subjected to 9 h of starvation and then sacrificed. The following parameters were determined: weight of abdominal fat, gizzard, liver, intestine, carcass, breast, and thighs. The fractions, as a percentage of carcass weight as described by Hamidi et al. [28], were determined.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

The obtained data were checked, and the existence of a fully randomized design was proven. This was accomplished with the general linear model procedures available in SAS [29]. The differences between means were separated using Duncan’s multiple range test. A probability of (p< 0.05) was used to determine statistical significance, see also Hamidi et al. [28].

3. Results

Growth Performance. The effects of water management, as determined through the impact of drinking water quality attributes on the growth performance of chickens during the grower and finisher periods, along with the full experimental time frame, are shown in Table 3, Table 4 and Table 5, respectively. As can be seen in Table 3, the use of different water resources during the grower period did not significantly affect the amount of feed intake, weight gain, FCR, and water consumption of chickens (p ≥ 0.05); compare Hodgins et al. [27]. In the finisher period, i.e., in the final period, the performance of chickens was affected by water resources (p < 0.05). Finally, it can be stated that the performance of chickens in the whole experimental period was also affected by the quality of water resources (p < 0.05). Reduced water consumption in chickens given the A treatment water may be due to the higher chloride level in that water.

Table 3. Drinking water from different regions in Iran and its effect on broilers in the grower period (11–24 days).

Drinking Water Quality Management for Broiler Performance and Carcass Characteristics - Image 3

Table 4. Drinking water from different regions in Iran and its effect on broilers in the finisher period (25–42 days).

Drinking Water Quality Management for Broiler Performance and Carcass Characteristics - Image 4

Table 5. Drinking water from different regions in Iran and its effect on broilers throughout the whole experimental period (11–42 days).

Drinking Water Quality Management for Broiler Performance and Carcass Characteristics - Image 5

Carcass Traits. Table 6 shows how the experimental drinking water affects broiler carcass traits. Based on the analysis of the results from this work, the comparison of means using Duncan’s new multiple range test does not show a significant difference in the relative percentage of the broiler carcasses (p ≥ 0.05).

Table 6. Influence of drinking water from different regions on carcass traits of broilers (percentage).

Drinking Water Quality Management for Broiler Performance and Carcass Characteristics - Image 6

4. Discussion

In terms of hardness, calcium and magnesium are dissolved minerals in the form of bicarbonate or sulfate, but are expressed as calcium carbonate equivalents. Water is measured for its tendency to precipitate soap and form scale. It is common for hard water to cause deposits to accumulate and scale to form in the watering system components. In most cases, poultry are not adversely affected by hardness unless certain ions are present in toxic quantities. When magnesium sulfate (MgSO4) levels are high, water consumption may increase, wet droppings may occur, and production may decline. Medication, disinfectants, and cleaning agents may lose their effectiveness when administered through water that has an extremely high hardness.

Clean drinking water is a vital requirement both for humans and animals. This includes the absence of microbiological and chemical contamination [30]. Increasing scrutiny has been given to microplastics in recent years [31]. The “quality” of water can be defined as its pureness and mineral composition. Water quality management includes the maintenance of the water supply system to avoid microbiological contamination, for instance, and possibly treatment to alter its hardness and mineral composition. Do Amaral [32] has identified drinking water as a risk factor for poultry production, where bad water management can lead to disease and lost productivity. The quality of drinking water will depend also on its provenience, e.g., whether it is taken from a surface water body or from underground reservoirs. Carawan [33] identified a cost-saving potential from proper water and waste management in poultry farming operations, with a payback period of less than one year.

The lack of a significant impact of different water origins on the characteristics of broilers in the grower period is probably related to low water consumption in this period, and use of vitamin supplements, electrolytes, and molasses in this growth phase, reducing the effects of harmful compounds in aquatic samples, which caused the performance of chickens not to be affected. However, the use of drinking water from certain sources in the finisher and the whole experimental period decreased the amount of feed consumed, growth rate, and increased FCR. In comparison with the other experimental groups, their water consumption was reduced. Although chickens drinking the water sample prepared from the B treatment area had the lowest value of absolute feed consumption, their FCR was not the highest; the most desirable FCR was observed in this experimental group. Due to the similarity of diets in terms of energy, protein, and breeding conditions for all experimental groups, the physicochemical properties of the drinking water are the main factor involved in their significant differences [7,34,35]. It has been reported that water with high hardness causes more water consumption [36]. Magnesium loosens waste and removes more moisture [37]. High chloride reduces the amount of weight gain and increases water intake and fecal moisture by affecting the electrolyte balance, acidification of the gastrointestinal tract and blood, and homeostasis [38,39]. The existence of high levels of sulfates increases water consumption, decreases water viscosity, and impairs copper absorption [40]. According to Kwiecień et al. [41], Cu has a stimulating effect on weight gain due to its participation in the process of hemoglobin synthesis. The presence of moderate amounts of sulfates can cause wet litter and dirty eggs as a result of loose droppings; however, these levels must be extremely high in order to adversely affect growth and egg production. A good barn ventilation system will prevent sulfate problems with drinking water caused by wet litter and manure. Minerals like copper may also be affected by high levels of sulfates. As magnesium and sulfate combine to form Epsom salt, high magnesium levels are only an issue if sulfate levels are also high. High levels of magnesium (Mg2+) and calcium (Ca2+) can result in water line scaling, resulting in restricted water flow. A high iron level can promote bacterial growth, leading to diarrhea. In the presence of air, iron is converted to ferric hydroxide. Water systems can be clogged by ferric hydroxide. Wet litter results from excessive sodium levels, which results in higher water consumption. It is possible to reduce the sodium levels in the water by reducing sodium levels in the feed. It is always recommended to seek the advice of a qualified nutritionist before making any dietary changes. Sodium and chloride deficiencies, as well as overdoses of sodium, can harm poultry.

The amount of water consumed in the control group was reduced, even though the high degree of hardness and higher amounts of salts such as magnesium, chloride, nitrate, and sulfate can be related to a decrease in water solubility due to the presence of high levels of these elements. Decreased water consumption led to a measurable reduction in feed consumption and weight gain, along with an increase in FCR, production index, and feed cost. Biological decay, animal waste, chemical fertilizers, and biological fertilizers yield nitrates. This is often caused by the seepage of surface water from nearby fertilized fields, which indicates bacterial contamination. Despite its non-toxic nature, nitrate is toxic when converted into nitrite by intestinal bacteria. There is generally no conversion of this type in poultry, so poultry are not commonly affected by this issue.

Although the authors could not find a statistically significant difference in carcass traits between the experimental groups, numerically, the lowest percentage of carcasses, meaning the highest abdominal fat, was observed in the control (water from point A). The highest percentage of carcasses was observed in the chickens consuming water from the north of the city. An increase in the percentage of abdominal fat can be associated with factors such as total water hardness [42]. Use of water with adequate physical, chemical, and microbiological qualities could aid disease prevention in chicks, influencing cost and yield at grow-out [43]. As the liver plays a major role in the synthesis of lipids or lipogenesis in poultry [44], it is possible that the increase in liver weight in birds treated with water from point C is related to the fact that birds fed hard water spend more energy on fat synthesis in the body, especially in the liver, since they require less energy to excrete uric acid from the urine [45]. The nutritional value of chickens’ diets is evaluated commercially by their digestion, absorption, and growth efficiency. A majority of broiler breeding costs is related to feed, and since the intestine is where nutrients are absorbed, maintaining the health of epithelial cells and intestinal mucosa is critical for increasing efficiency and reducing production costs. In water from point D, the percentage of overall carcass weight from the intestine was increased, which may create a better environment for digesting feed and absorbing nutrients.

Several environmental factors could explain the geographical variation in poultry performance, but the source of drinking water would seem to be an obvious candidate. There has been evidence that water plays an important role in livestock and poultry in regards to nutrients and toxic substances. The quality of the water can directly or indirectly affect performance. In areas with poor water quality, growth can be retarded, or meat production may be reduced. Water quality mainly affects the amount of water and feed intake and bird performance and cannot affect the composition of poultry carcasses, and in this experiment, water from different regions, despite having significant effects on the performance of chickens, did not change the composition of their carcasses.

In conclusion, water management is essential in poultry performance. Water is the only nutrient birds need to survive, and they can, like other species, survive for extended periods of time without any other nutrients. It is impossible to state exactly what amount of water is needed for optimal health, even though it is considered to be the most essential nutrient. Based on weight, birds generally consume twice the amount of water which they consume in feed. Water requirements can easily quadruple during periods of extreme heat stress. It is well accepted that providing adequate access to water or sufficient water quantity is important. However, the relevance of appropriate water quality becomes apparent to high-quality production. Performance can be affected directly or indirectly by water quality attributes. Physiological properties can be negatively impacted by high levels of microbial contamination (e.g., by bacteria), or other organic or inorganic pollutants in the supplied water. According to the experimental results of this work, the physicochemical composition of water can affect the amount of water consumed and performance in broilers. Therefore, while conducting regular water quality assessment tests, the necessary measures should be taken to reduce the negative impacts of these compounds on the performance of chickens, such as changes in the composition of their diets, and the physicochemical status of the water used should be improved.

5. Conclusions

Results revealed that water quality in the wells at the poultry farms in the northern part of the experimental area was higher than that of the other areas, and it is beneficial to poultry farms in these areas. It is essential to implement water treatment and quality improvement measures in areas that do not have this degree of water quality, especially those that have water scarcity and poor water quality. In the course of implementing the project, the authors observed a number of multifactorial effects on water quality. Hence, further experiments regarding their correlations are recommended.

This article was originally published in World 2024, 5, 952–961. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/world5040048. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Drinking Water Quality Management for Broiler Performance and Carcass Characteristics

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