To date, there is no universally recognized "standard parameter " for accurately assessing animal welfare or determining the precise level of stress in pigs. Commonly employed methods include:
(1) Direct Behavioural assessments using standardized scoring systems or more sophisticated techniques such as automated video-based behaviour analysis.
(2) The evaluation of physiological biomarkers that reflect the animal's stress-related responses. Increasingly, researchers are adopting a multi-biomarker approach to obtain a more holistic view, focusing on indicators from key physiological systems including the Sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) system, Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, Hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis, checking SALIVARY cortisol and the immunity cells.