Insect and algae products are two emerging classes of novel feed ingredients that are celebrated for their nutritive value and/or bioactive capacity. Insect and algae products and extracts are being developed to replace traditionally used nutrient sources, such as fish meal and soy, and in the case of bioactive capacity, in-feed antibiotics. The fact that production of these feed ingredients may redirect waste streams, can require low-level inputs and/or can be achieved vertically adds to their allure and the impetus to normalize their use in the diets of multiple commercial animal species. Replacing plants and animals with insects and algaes cannot be accomplished without considering all their constituent components. This consideration must include bioactive or other chemo-protective components of the ingredients that could also act as antinutrients, and their influence on feed consumption and digestion, gut microbiome, and immunity. Although insects and seaweeds are naturally consumed in the wild by species that relate closely to animals used in human food production (fish, poultry, swine), feeding rates and applications of use in a commercial setting may differ from self-selective levels of consumption exhibited by wild animals. As we move in the direction of small- (in-ovo injection) and large- (use of fat and protein products in dietary formulations) scale use of insects and algaes in animal diets, a measured approach must be taken to fully assess and appreciate these up-and-coming feed ingredients and utilize them to the fullest of their potential and limitations, supporting food security for present and future generations.
Key words: novel feed ingredients, seaweed, microalgae, insect meal; bioactives; antinutrients.
Aas, T.S., T. Ytrestøyl, T. and E. Åsgård. 2022. Utilization of feed resources in Norwegian farming of Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout in 2020. Professional report. Nofima AS. https://hdl.handle.net/11250/2977260.
Abdel‐Moneim, A.E., A.M. Shehata, S.O. Alzahrani, M.E. Shafi, N.M. Mesalam, A.E. Taha, A. Swelum, M. Arif, M. Fayyaz and M.E. Abd El‐Hack. 2020. The role of polyphenols in poultry nutrition. J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr. 104(6) 1851-866.
Becker, E.W. 2007. Micro-algae as a source of protein. Biotechnol. Adv. 25, 207-210.
Biasato, I., E. Biasibetti, L. Spuria, A. Schiavone, L. Gasco, C. Dall’Aglio and M.T. Capucchio. 2017. Histological, Morphometric and Histochemical Findings in Broiler Chickens Fed Diets Containing Insect Meal. J. Comp. Pathol. 156(1) 81.
Boevé, J. and R. Giot. 2021. Chemical composition: Hearing insect defensive volatiles. Patterns 2(11) 100352.
Bovera, F. 2016. Use of Tenebrio molitor larvae meal as protein source in broiler diet: Effect on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and carcass and meat trait. J. Anim. Sci. 94(2) 639-647.
Brown, M.R. 1991. The amino acid and sugar composition of sixteen species of microalgae used in mariculture. J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 145, 79-99.
Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA). 2021. Feed Regulations. Schedules IV and V. List of Approved Ingredients. Version: 30 August 2021.
Chernysh, S., N. Gordya and T. Suborova. 2015. Insect Antimicrobial Peptide Complexes Prevent Resistance Development in Bacteria. PLoS ONE 10(7) E0130788.
Collins, S.A., G.S. Mansfield, A.R. Desai, A.G. Van Kessel, J.E. Hill and M.D. Drew. 2013. Structural equation modeling of antinutrients in rainbow trout diets and their impact on feed intake and growth. Aquaculture 416-417 219-227.
Cullere, M., G. Tasoniero, V. Giaccone, R. Miotti-Scapin, E. Claeys, S. De Smet and A. Dalle Zotte. 2016. Black soldier fly as dietary protein source for broiler quails: Apparent digestibility, excreta microbial load, feed choice, performance, carcass and meat traits. Animal 10(12) 1923- 1930.
De Marco, M., S. Martínez, F. Hernandez, J. Madrid, F. Gai, L. Rotolo, M. Belforti, D. Bergero, H. Katz, S. Dabbou, A. Kovitvadhi, Z. Ivo, L. Gasco and A. Schiavone. 2015. Nutritional value of two insect larval meals (Tenebrio molitor and Hermetia illucens) for broiler chickens: Apparent nutrient digestibility, apparent ileal amino acid digestibility and apparent metabolizable energy. Anim. Feed Sci. and Technol. 209 211-218.
Doucha, J. and K. Lívanský. 2008. Influence of processing parameters on disintegration of Chlorella cells in various types of homogenizers. Appl. Microbiol, Biotechnol. 81 431-440.
Fleming, A.E. 1995. Growth, intake, feed conversion efficiency and chemosensory preference of the Australian abalone, Haliotis rubra. Aquaculture 132 297-311.
Fisher, H., S.A. Collins, C. Hanson, B. Mason, S. Colombo and D. Anderson. 2020. Black soldier fly larvae meal as a protein source in low fish meal diets for Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). Aquaculture 521 734978.
Ford, L., A.C. Stratakos, K. Theodoridou, J.T.A. Dick, G.N. Sheldrake, M. Linton, N. Corcionivoschi and P.J. Walsh. 2020. Polyphenols from brown seaweeds as a potential antimicrobial agent in animal feeds. ACS Omega 5(16) 9093-9103.
Francis, G., H.P.S. Makkar and K. Becker. 2001. Antinutritional factors present in plant-derived alternate fish feed ingredients and their effects in fish. Aquaculture 199(3-4) 197-227.
Htoo, J.K., X. Meng, J.F. Patience, M.E.R. Dugan and R.T. Zijlstra. 2008. Effects of coextrusion of flaxseed and field pea on the digestibility of energy, ether extract, fatty acids, protein, and amino acids in grower-finisher pigs. J. Anim. Sci. 86(11) 2942-2951.
Hopkins, T.R. 1991. Physical and chemical cell disruption for the recovery of intracellular proteins. Bioprocess Technol. 12 57-83.
Józefiak, D., A. Józefiak, B. Kieronczyk, M. Rawski, Mateusz, S. Swiatkiewicz, J. Dlugosz and R.M. Engberg. 2016. Insects - A Natural Nutrient Source for Poultry - A Review. Ann. Anim. Sci. 16(2) 297-313.
Kawasaki, K., Y. Hashimoto, A. Hori, T. Kawasaki, H. Hirayasu, S. Iwase, A. Hashizume, A. Ido, C. Miura, T. Miura, S. Nakamura, T. Seyama, Y. Matsumoto, K. Kasai and Y. Fujitani. 2019. Evaluation of Black Soldier Fly (Hermetia illucens) Larvae and Pre-Pupae Raised on Household Organic Waste, as Potential Ingredients for Poultry Feed. Animals 9(3) 98.
Khusro, M., N. Andrew and A. Nicholas. 2012. Insects as poultry feed: A scoping study for poultry production systems in Australia. World's Poult. Sci. J. 68(3) 435-446.
Leiber, F., T. Gelencsér, A. Stamer, Z. Amsler, J. Wohlfahrt, B. Früh, B. and V. Maurer. 2017. Insect and legume-based protein sources to replace soybean cake in an organic broiler diet: Effects on growth performance and physical meat quality. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 32(1) 21-27.
Leyton, A. R. Pezoa-Conte, A. Barriga, A.H. Buschmann, P. Maki-Arvela, J.P. Mikkola and M.E. Lienqueo. 2016. Identification and efficient extraction method of phlorotannins from the brown seaweed Macrocystis pyrifera using an orthogonal experimental design. Algal Res. 16 201– 208.
Liu, X., X. Chen, H. Wang, Q. Yang, K. Ur Rehman, W. Li and L. Zheng. 2017. Dynamic changes of nutrient composition throughout the entire life cycle of black soldier fly. PLoS ONE 12(8).
Makkar, H., G. Tran, V. Heuzé and P. Ankers. 2014. State-of-the-art on use of insects as animal feed. Anim. Feed Sci. Technol. 197I 1-33.
Marono, S., R. Loponte, P. Lombardi, G. Vassalotti, M. Pero, F. Russo, L. Gasco, G. Parisi and A.P.J. Middelberg. 1995. Process-scale disruption of microorganisms. Biotechnol. Adv. 13 491-551.
Morris, H.J., O. Farnés, A. Almarales, R. Bermúdez, Y. Lebeque, R. Fontaine, G. Llauradó and Y. Beltrán. 2007. Immunostimulant activity of an enzymatic protein hydrolysate from green microalga Chlorella vulgaris on undernourished mice. Enzyme Microb. Technol. 40 456-460.
Piccolo, G., S. Nizza, C. Meo, Y. Attia, Y. and F. Bovera. 2017. Productive performance and blood profiles of laying hens fed Hermetia illucens larvae meal as total replacement of soybean meal from 24 to 45 weeks of age. Poult. Sci. J. 96(6) 1783-1790.
Mendes, L.B.B and A.B. Vermelho. 2013. Allelopathy as a potential strategy to improve microalgae cultivation. Biotechnol. Biofuels 6 151.
Mwaniki, Z., M. Neijat and E. Kiarie. 2018. Egg production and quality responses of adding up to 7.5% defatted black soldier fly larvae meal in a corn–soybean meal diet fed to Shaver White Leghorns from wk 19 to 27 of age. Poult. Sci. J. 97(8) 2829-2.
Naiel, M.A.E., M. Alagawany, A.K. Patra, A.I. El-Kholy, M.S. Amer and M.E. Abd El-Hack. 2021. Beneficial impacts and health benefits of macroalgae phenolic molecules on fish production. Aquaculture 534 736186.
Pignolet, O., S. Jubeau, C. Vaca-Garcia and P. Michaud. 2013. Highly valuable microalgae: biochemical and topological aspects. J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 40 781-796.
Sari, Y.W., M.E. Bruins and J.P.M. Sanders. 2013. Enzyme assisted protein extraction from rapeseed, soybean, and microalgae meals. Ind. Crops Prod. 43 78-83.
Sheih, I.C., T.J. Fang and T.K. Wu. 2009. Isolation and characterisation of a novel angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory peptide from the algae protein waste. Food Chem. 115 279- 284.
Spolaore, P., C. Joannis-Cassan, E. Duran and A. Isambert. 2006. Commercial applications of microalgae. J. Biosci. Bioeng. 101 87-96.
Suetsuna, K. and J.R. Chen. 2001. Identification of antihypertensive peptides from peptic digest of two microalgae Chlorella vulgaris and Spirulina platensis. Mar. Biotechnol. 3 305-309.
Tresserra-Rimbau, A., R.M. Lamuela-Raventos and J.J. Moreno. 2018. Polyphenols, food and pharma. Current knowledge and directions for future research. Biochem. Pharmacol. 156 186–195.
Ursu, A.-V., A. Marcati, T. Sayd, V. Sante-Lhoutellier, G. Djelveh and Michaud, P. 2014. Extraction, fractionation and functional properties of proteins from the microalgae Chlorella vulgaris. Bioresour. Technol. 157 134-139.
S.R.N. Velten, C. Neumann and F Liebert. 2016. Evaluation of partly defatted insect meal from Hermetia illucens as a substitute for soybean meal in broiler chicken diets. 10.13140/RG.2.2.24796.39042.
Wang, S., B. Ji, M. Zhang, Y. Ma, J. Gu and Y. Liu. 2020. Defensive responses of microalgalbacterial granules to tetracycline in municipal wastewater treatment. Bioresour. Technol. 312 123605.
Yi, H., M. Chowdhury, Y. Huang and X. Yu. 2014. Insect antimicrobial peptides and their applications. Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 98(13) 5807-22.
Zagrobelny, M., É.C.P. de Castro, B.L. Møller and S. Bak. 2018. Cyanogenesis in arthropods: from chemical warfare to nuptial gifts. Insects 9(2) 51.
Zhao, L., X. Geng, Y. Zhang, X. Hu, X. Zhang, H. Xu, G. Yang, K. Pan and Y. Jiang. 2022. How do microalgae in response to biological pollution treat in cultivation? A case study investigating microalgal defense against ciliate predator Euplotes vannus. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 29 32171-32179.
Zhong, X., Y. Shi, J. Chen, J. Xu, L. Wang, R.C. Beier, X. Hou and F. Liu. 2014. Polyphenol extracts from Punica granatum and Terminalia chebula are anti-inflammatory and increase the survival rate of chickens challenged with Escherichia coli. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 37(10) 1575–1582.